Rare Earth Metals: The Fuel for Modern Technologies

Neodymium and dysprosium are used for electric vehicle magnets; lanthanum in nickel-metal hydride batteries; samarium cobalt magnets used on precision guided missiles; and gadolinium neutron absorbers for nuclear reactors are all made up of these elements, found mixed together in ore deposits and must be extracted through complex chemical processes in order to use.

As long as one country controls supply, any shortage can quickly cripple industries. Therefore, many nations are exploring other sources in an attempt to lessen their reliance on China.

China’s monopoly

China has emerged as a formidable manufacturing and trade power, becoming adept at controlling raw material markets through state entities and strategic investments, giving the nation control of raw materials markets for manufacturing purposes as well as economic leverage over its rivals. This success has helped build technological prowess while creating economic strength against economic rivals.

China now dominates rare earth production and reserves, controlling more than 90% of global production and holding 36.7 percent of total reserves. China's dominance leaves the market vulnerable to domestic Chinese policy and their use of strategic resources as economic coercion tools; as a result, 78 percent of United States rare earth needs are imported from Chinese producers for manufacturing high-tech products.

China has shown the potential of its ability to manipulate export quotas - which govern how much material can leave its borders - by disrupting production for three U.S. defense manufacturers and stopping research on micro-sized magnets used in hybrid electric cars. This reliance is highly risky. China has already demonstrated this capability when they successfully blocked American production at three defense manufacturers and prevented research on micro-sized magnets used for hybrid electric car hybridization projects.

One solution is to develop backup options that don't rely on rare earth elements, like rewarding companies for creating products without these materials with bug bounties. Although replacement products may not exist, having backup plans increases supply chain resilience and weakens monopoly power.

Seabed mining

Clarion-Clipperton Zone Rare Earth Metals have long been recognized as essential components in laptops, phones and electric cars - the CEO of one seabed mining company has declared this claim to be accurate. But in order for any renewed U.S. efforts at mining to be successful in competing on cost with China-dominated magnet-making markets, more processing capacity needs to be deployed quickly after mining operations start up again.

To do this, they will have to scour both ocean floors and even consider mining the moon for metals that can be used as MRI contrast agents, PET scintillators, ceramic electrolytes for solid oxide fuel cells and substrate for MRI magnets. They must also consider how this effort impacts finances, environment and geopolitics in equal measures.

Much of the discussion surrounding shallow-water mining has centered on environmental and economic consequences; human health concerns have remained noticeably absent. That's a problem given how dependent human health is on marine biodiversity; further studies reveal increased suspended sediment concentrations can suffocate animals by covering up oxygen intake holes; damage their gills; change behaviors; cause injuries; even cause death.

http://www.the-globe.com/the_worlds_most_visited_web_pages_492/

U.S.-China trade disputes

China began harnessing research, state funding and cheap labor to expand their rare earth production in the 1990s. Soon afterwards they emerged as global leaders, providing nearly 100% of light rare earths such as praseodymium and neodymium, and 100% of heavy rare earths such as dysprosium and terbium used in wind turbines. China limited exports in order to safeguard resources while protecting the environment - leading prices to skyrocket as a result.

Fear of scarcity created high prices and seemed to lead to radical solutions such as opening the Amazon rainforest or mining in Greenland or mining off the Moon. Unfortunately, however, chemical properties make separating and purifying elements challenging, requiring large amounts of ore and creating toxic fumes and acids which have adverse side-effects on health.

The Department of Energy's national laboratories are developing new technologies for sourcing, processing and recycling rare earths. For instance, researchers at Iowa's Ames Laboratory have devised an efficient means of recovering rare-earth magnets from industrial waste without using toxic gases like acid. Furthermore, companies such as Lynas have won contracts outside China to produce and process rare earths; but such ventures must adhere to stringent environmental regulations as well as lacking magnet manufacturing expertise like China does; according to MP Materials CEO Nakano this supply must remain reliable if jobs and technological breakthroughs are to be created or created in 21st-century technologies.

https://www.deviantart.com/vestercwbc/journal/making-an-investment-in-precious-metals-and-rare-e-887626563

The future

As the energy transition unfolds and demand for clean technologies increases, rare earth metals will be essential. Through strategic policies measures implemented by both governments and businesses alike, rare earth production can remain sustainable without supply disruptions.

Rare earths, made up of 17 elements found only in limited locations across Earth's crust, are an indispensable component of modern technology. Their usage spans everything from electronics (computers and television screens to smartphones and smartphones) to wind turbines and solar panels for renewable energy generation as well as national defense technology like jet engines and missile guidance and defense systems.

These minerals are considered rare due to their infrequent occurrence in nature and difficulty of mining, often being classified by their atomic number: those with lower numbers such as lanthanum to promethium are known as light rare earth elements while those with higher numbers (lanthanum through promethium) are known as heavy rare earth elements.

Mining these minerals has serious environmental repercussions. Rare earths contain radioactive elements that produce toxic waste that pollutes soil and water sources. Refining one ton of rare earths requires 75 cubic meters of acidic wastewater - possibly endangering human health as well as seabed mining activities that damage marine ecosystems. Sustainable production of rare earths is possible, however this will require clear signals from policy makers regarding energy transition speed and growth trajectory of key clean energy technologies in order to attract investment into diversified sources of new supplies.