Identifying Components That Influence Repair Estimates

Identifying Components That Influence Repair Estimates

Common mistakes to avoid when creating follow up plans for foundation repair services

Overview of common components that influence repair estimates, such as foundation type and extent of damage.


When it comes to estimating the cost of repairs for a property, several key components play a crucial role in determining the final figure. Professional assessments determine the best foundation repair solution professional slab foundation repair service integrity. Understanding these components can help homeowners, contractors, and insurance professionals make more informed decisions. Here, we'll explore some of the most common factors that influence repair estimates, with a particular focus on the type of foundation and the extent of damage.

First and foremost, the type of foundation a property has is a significant determinant in repair costs. Foundations come in various forms, including slab, crawl space, and basement foundations. Each type has its own set of challenges and repair requirements. For instance, a slab foundation, which is a single, solid piece of concrete, may be less prone to certain types of damage but can be more expensive to repair if issues arise. On the other hand, crawl space and basement foundations might be more susceptible to moisture and structural issues, which can lead to higher repair costs due to the complexity of the work required.

The extent of damage is another critical factor that heavily influences repair estimates. Minor cracks or shifts in a foundation may require simple, cost-effective solutions like epoxy injections or surface repairs. However, more severe damage, such as significant settling, large cracks, or water intrusion, can necessitate more invasive and costly repairs. In such cases, solutions might include underpinning, which involves strengthening or stabilizing the foundation, or even complete foundation replacement in extreme scenarios. The labor, materials, and equipment required for these extensive repairs drive up the cost considerably.

Location also plays a pivotal role in repair estimates. The geographical area can affect the availability and cost of materials, as well as labor rates. In regions prone to natural disasters like earthquakes or floods, foundations may require more robust designs and materials, which can increase initial construction costs and subsequent repair estimates.

Additionally, the age and condition of the property before the damage occurred can impact repair costs. Older homes might have foundations constructed with materials and techniques that are no longer in use, making repairs more complex and expensive. Moreover, pre-existing conditions, such as poor drainage or inadequate soil compaction, can exacerbate foundation issues and lead to higher repair costs.

Lastly, the accessibility of the damaged area is a practical consideration that affects repair estimates. Properties with difficult-to-reach foundations, whether due to landscaping, other structures, or terrain, may require additional work to access the damaged area, thereby increasing labor costs and the overall repair estimate.

In conclusion, several components influence repair estimates for property foundations, with the type of foundation and the extent of damage being among the most significant. Other factors, such as location, the age and condition of the property, and accessibility, also play crucial roles. By understanding these components, stakeholders can better navigate the complexities of repair estimations and make more informed decisions.

Discussion on the role of soil conditions and environmental factors in determining repair estimates.


When it comes to determining repair estimates for various infrastructures like roads, buildings, or agricultural fields, several factors come into play. Among these, soil conditions and environmental factors hold a significant role. Understanding their impact can help in making more accurate and effective repair plans.

Firstly, soil conditions are crucial. The type of soil-whether it's clay, sand, or silt-can greatly influence the stability and longevity of any structure built upon it. For instance, clay soils can expand and contract with moisture changes, leading to cracks in foundations or roadways. In contrast, sandy soils may offer less support, making structures more susceptible to shifting or sinking. Therefore, assessing soil composition and its behavior under different conditions is essential for precise repair estimates.

Environmental factors also play a pivotal role. Climate conditions such as temperature fluctuations, rainfall patterns, and even wind can exacerbate wear and tear on structures. For example, freeze-thaw cycles in colder climates can cause significant damage to roads and buildings, necessitating more frequent and extensive repairs. Similarly, areas prone to heavy rainfall may experience erosion or waterlogging, which can undermine the structural integrity of surfaces and require more robust repair strategies.

Moreover, the interaction between soil conditions and environmental factors can compound the challenges. For instance, heavy rainfall on clay soils can lead to increased expansion and contraction, accelerating the need for repairs. Conversely, drought conditions might cause soil to shrink and harden, potentially leading to different types of structural issues.

In conclusion, when identifying components that influence repair estimates, it's vital to consider both soil conditions and environmental factors. These elements not only dictate the type and extent of repairs needed but also help in planning long-term maintenance strategies to ensure the durability and safety of infrastructures. By taking a comprehensive approach that includes these natural factors, we can achieve more effective and sustainable repair solutions.

Examination of the impact of building age, construction materials, and design on repair costs.


Certainly! When it comes to estimating repair costs for buildings, a multitude of factors come into play. Among these, the age of the building, the materials used in its construction, and its design are paramount. Understanding how these elements interact can significantly influence the accuracy of repair estimates and the overall strategy for maintenance.

Firstly, the age of a building is a critical determinant of repair costs. Over time, buildings naturally degrade due to exposure to environmental elements, wear and tear from usage, and the gradual obsolescence of materials and technologies. Older buildings often require more extensive repairs not only because of their age but also because they may have been constructed with materials and methods that are no longer in use. This can complicate the repair process, necessitating specialized knowledge or the sourcing of rare materials, thereby increasing costs.

Construction materials also play a pivotal role in influencing repair costs. The choice of materials-whether it's concrete, steel, wood, or newer composites-dictates not only the durability and longevity of the building but also the type and frequency of repairs needed. For instance, wooden structures may require more frequent treatments for pests and decay, while steel structures might need protection against corrosion. The cost of materials themselves varies widely, and the availability of certain materials can also affect repair costs, especially if the building was constructed with rare or discontinued products.

Design considerations are equally important. The architectural and structural design of a building can significantly impact repair costs. Buildings with complex designs or unconventional structures may present unique challenges during repairs. Access to certain areas might be limited, requiring specialized equipment or techniques, which can drive up costs. Moreover, the integration of modern technologies and systems within older buildings can complicate repairs, as it may require the expertise of professionals familiar with both contemporary and traditional construction methods.

In conclusion, when estimating repair costs, it's essential to consider the age of the building, the construction materials used, and the design. These factors not only influence the immediate costs associated with repairs but also have long-term implications for the building's maintenance and sustainability. By carefully assessing these components, building owners and managers can make more informed decisions, potentially saving costs in the long run and ensuring the longevity and safety of their structures.

Analysis of the role of local building codes and regulations in influencing repair estimates.


When it comes to estimating repair costs for buildings, there are a multitude of factors that come into play. One of the most important factors to consider is the role of local building codes and regulations. These codes and regulations can have a significant impact on the cost of repairs, as well as the overall safety and functionality of the building.

Local building codes and regulations are designed to ensure that buildings are constructed and maintained in a safe and functional manner. These codes and regulations vary from place to place, depending on a variety of factors such as climate, geography, and local building practices. They are typically enforced by local building officials, who have the authority to issue citations and fines for violations.

One of the primary ways that local building codes and regulations influence repair estimates is by setting minimum standards for construction and maintenance. For example, a local building code may require that all electrical wiring in a building be up to code, or that all plumbing be installed in a certain way. If a building does not meet these minimum standards, it may be deemed unsafe and require significant repairs to bring it up to code.

In addition to setting minimum standards, local building codes and regulations can also influence repair estimates by dictating the materials and methods that can be used for repairs. For example, a local building code may require that all repairs to a building's exterior be done using certain types of materials, such as brick or stone, in order to maintain the building's historic character. This can significantly increase the cost of repairs, as these materials may be more expensive than other options.

Another way that local building codes and regulations can influence repair estimates is by requiring certain types of inspections and certifications. For example, a local building code may require that all repairs to a building's electrical system be inspected and certified by a licensed electrician. This can add to the cost of repairs, as the electrician's fees will need to be factored into the estimate.

Finally, local building codes and regulations can also influence repair estimates by dictating the timeline for repairs. For example, a local building code may require that all repairs to a building's roof be completed within a certain timeframe, in order to prevent water damage to the interior of the building. This can add pressure to complete the repairs quickly, which may increase the cost of labor and materials.

In conclusion, local building codes and regulations play a crucial role in influencing repair estimates for buildings. These codes and regulations set minimum standards for construction and maintenance, dictate the materials and methods that can be used for repairs, require certain types of inspections and certifications, and dictate the timeline for repairs. As such, it is important for anyone involved in estimating repair costs to be familiar with the local building codes and regulations that apply to the building in question. By taking these factors into account, it is possible to provide more accurate and reliable repair estimates, and to ensure that the building is maintained in a safe and functional manner.

Exploration of the significance of contractor experience, reputation, and expertise in providing accurate estimates.


When it comes to identifying components that influence repair estimates, one critical factor stands out: the contractor's experience, reputation, and expertise. These elements play a pivotal role in ensuring that the estimates provided are not only accurate but also reliable. Let's delve into why these aspects are so important.

Firstly, experience is a cornerstone of accurate estimating. A contractor with years in the industry has likely encountered a wide array of repair scenarios. This breadth of experience allows them to anticipate potential issues that might not be immediately apparent to a less seasoned contractor. As a result, their estimates are more likely to account for all possible variables, leading to a more precise cost prediction.

Reputation is another vital component. A contractor's reputation within the community and among peers can serve as a testament to their reliability and accuracy in providing estimates. A contractor with a solid reputation has likely built this standing by consistently delivering on their promises, including accurate estimates. Clients are more likely to trust an estimate from a reputable contractor, knowing that past performance is a good indicator of future results.

Expertise, the third element, is what sets a good contractor apart from a great one. Expertise goes beyond general experience; it encompasses specialized knowledge and skills in specific areas of repair work. A contractor with deep expertise in particular types of repairs can provide more nuanced and accurate estimates. They understand the intricacies of the work, the materials required, and the potential challenges that might arise, all of which contribute to a more precise estimate.

In conclusion, the exploration of the significance of contractor experience, reputation, and expertise in providing accurate estimates reveals that these components are indispensable. They ensure that the estimates are not only accurate but also trustworthy, giving clients the confidence they need when embarking on repair projects.

Overview of the process of obtaining multiple repair estimates and comparing them to make an informed decision.


When it comes to repairing any type of equipment, vehicle, or home appliance, obtaining multiple repair estimates is a crucial step in making an informed decision. This process not only helps you understand the scope of the work required but also allows you to compare prices and services offered by different repair professionals. Here's an overview of the process and the components that influence repair estimates.

Firstly, initiating the process involves identifying the problem. Whether it's a strange noise from your car, a leaky faucet, or a malfunctioning appliance, clearly understanding the issue is the first step. This helps in communicating effectively with repair professionals and ensures that you get accurate estimates.

Next, you should research and identify potential repair services. Look for reputable companies or individuals with good reviews and a solid track record. This can be done through online searches, recommendations from friends or family, or by checking professional directories.

Once you have a list of potential repair services, the next step is to contact them for estimates. When doing so, provide as much detail as possible about the problem. This ensures that the estimates you receive are as accurate as possible. Some repair services may offer free on-site assessments, which can be beneficial in getting a precise estimate.

When comparing estimates, several components influence the final cost. These include the cost of labor, which varies depending on the expertise and experience of the repair professional. The cost of parts is another significant factor, especially if the repair requires specialized or hard-to-find components. Additionally, the complexity of the repair and the time it takes to complete can affect the overall cost.

It's also important to consider the warranty or guarantee offered on the repair. A good repair service should stand behind their work with a warranty, which can provide peace of mind and protection against future issues.

Lastly, don't overlook the importance of customer service. A repair professional who communicates clearly, is punctual, and respects your home or property can make a significant difference in your overall experience.

In conclusion, obtaining multiple repair estimates and comparing them is a vital process in making an informed decision. By understanding the components that influence repair estimates, you can ensure that you choose a repair service that offers quality work at a fair price.



Foundation(s) or The Foundation(s) may refer to:

Common uses

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  • Foundation (cosmetics), a skin-coloured makeup cream applied to the face
  • Foundation (engineering), the element of a structure which connects it to the ground, and transfers loads from the structure to the ground
  • Foundation (evidence), a legal term
  • Foundation (nonprofit), a type of charitable organization
    • Foundation (United States law), a type of charitable organization in the U.S.
    • Private foundation, a charitable organization that might not qualify as a public charity by government standards

Arts, entertainment, and media

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Film and TV

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  • The Foundation, a film about 1960s-1970s Aboriginal history in Sydney, featuring Gary Foley
  • The Foundation (1984 TV series), a Hong Kong series
  • The Foundation (Canadian TV series), a 2009–2010 Canadian sitcom
  • "The Foundation" (Seinfeld), an episode
  • Foundation (TV series), an Apple TV+ series adapted from Isaac Asimov's novels

Games

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  • Foundation (video game), a city-building game (2025)
  • Foundation, an Amiga video game
  • The Foundation, a character in 2017 game Fortnite Battle Royale

Literature

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  • Foundation (book series), a series of science fiction books by Isaac Asimov
    • Foundation (Asimov novel), the first book in Asimov's series, published in 1951
  • Foundation (b-boy book), by Joseph G. Schloss
  • Foundation (Lackey novel), a 2008 fantasy novel by Mercedes Lackey

Music

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  • The Foundations, a British soul group
  • Foundations (EP), by Serj Tankian

Albums

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  • Foundation (Brand Nubian album)
  • Foundation (Breakage album)
  • Foundation (Doc Watson album)
  • Foundation (Magnum album)
  • Foundation (M.O.P. album)
  • Foundation, a 1997 compilation album by Die Krupps
  • The Foundation (Geto Boys album)
  • The Foundation (Pep Love album), 2005
  • The Foundation (Zac Brown Band album)
  • The Foundations (album), by 4 Corners

Songs

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  • "Foundation", a 1983 song by Spandau Ballet from the album True
  • "Foundation", a 1998 song by Brand Nubian from the eponymous album Foundation
  • "Foundation", a 2009 song by M.O.P. from the eponymous album Foundation
  • "Foundation", a 2010 song by Breakage from the eponymous album Foundation
  • "Foundation", a 2015 song by Years & Years from Communion
  • "Foundations" (song), by Kate Nash
  • "The Foundation" (song), by Xzibit

Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media

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  • Foundation – The International Review of Science Fiction, a literary journal
  • The Foundation Trilogy (BBC Radio), a radio adaption of Asimov's series
  • The SCP Foundation, a fictional organization that is often referred to in-universe as "The Foundation"

Education

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  • Foundation degree, a British academic qualification
  • Foundation school, a type of school in England and Wales
  • Foundation Stage, a stage of education for children aged 3 to 5 in England
  • University Foundation Programme, a British university entrance course

Science and technology

[edit]
  • Foundation (framework), a free collection of tools for creating websites and web applications by ZURB
  • Foundation Fieldbus, a communications system
  • Foundation Kit, an Apple API

Companies

[edit]
  • Foundation Medicine, a genomic profiling company

See also

[edit]
  • All pages with titles beginning with Foundation
  • All pages with titles beginning with The Foundation
  • Foundations of mathematics, theory of mathematics

 

Boston's Big Dig presented geotechnical challenges in an urban environment.
Precast concrete retaining wall
A typical cross-section of a slope used in two-dimensional analyzes.

Geotechnical engineering, also known as geotechnics, is the branch of civil engineering concerned with the engineering behavior of earth materials. It uses the principles of soil mechanics and rock mechanics to solve its engineering problems. It also relies on knowledge of geology, hydrology, geophysics, and other related sciences.

Geotechnical engineering has applications in military engineering, mining engineering, petroleum engineering, coastal engineering, and offshore construction. The fields of geotechnical engineering and engineering geology have overlapping knowledge areas. However, while geotechnical engineering is a specialty of civil engineering, engineering geology is a specialty of geology.

History

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Humans have historically used soil as a material for flood control, irrigation purposes, burial sites, building foundations, and construction materials for buildings. Dykes, dams, and canals dating back to at least 2000 BCE—found in parts of ancient Egypt, ancient Mesopotamia, the Fertile Crescent, and the early settlements of Mohenjo Daro and Harappa in the Indus valley—provide evidence for early activities linked to irrigation and flood control. As cities expanded, structures were erected and supported by formalized foundations. The ancient Greeks notably constructed pad footings and strip-and-raft foundations. Until the 18th century, however, no theoretical basis for soil design had been developed, and the discipline was more of an art than a science, relying on experience.[1]

Several foundation-related engineering problems, such as the Leaning Tower of Pisa, prompted scientists to begin taking a more scientific-based approach to examining the subsurface. The earliest advances occurred in the development of earth pressure theories for the construction of retaining walls. Henri Gautier, a French royal engineer, recognized the "natural slope" of different soils in 1717, an idea later known as the soil's angle of repose. Around the same time, a rudimentary soil classification system was also developed based on a material's unit weight, which is no longer considered a good indication of soil type.[1][2]

The application of the principles of mechanics to soils was documented as early as 1773 when Charles Coulomb, a physicist and engineer, developed improved methods to determine the earth pressures against military ramparts. Coulomb observed that, at failure, a distinct slip plane would form behind a sliding retaining wall and suggested that the maximum shear stress on the slip plane, for design purposes, was the sum of the soil cohesion, , and friction , where is the normal stress on the slip plane and is the friction angle of the soil. By combining Coulomb's theory with Christian Otto Mohr's 2D stress state, the theory became known as Mohr-Coulomb theory. Although it is now recognized that precise determination of cohesion is impossible because is not a fundamental soil property, the Mohr-Coulomb theory is still used in practice today.[3]

In the 19th century, Henry Darcy developed what is now known as Darcy's Law, describing the flow of fluids in a porous media. Joseph Boussinesq, a mathematician and physicist, developed theories of stress distribution in elastic solids that proved useful for estimating stresses at depth in the ground. William Rankine, an engineer and physicist, developed an alternative to Coulomb's earth pressure theory. Albert Atterberg developed the clay consistency indices that are still used today for soil classification.[1][2] In 1885, Osborne Reynolds recognized that shearing causes volumetric dilation of dense materials and contraction of loose granular materials.

Modern geotechnical engineering is said to have begun in 1925 with the publication of Erdbaumechanik by Karl von Terzaghi, a mechanical engineer and geologist. Considered by many to be the father of modern soil mechanics and geotechnical engineering, Terzaghi developed the principle of effective stress, and demonstrated that the shear strength of soil is controlled by effective stress.[4] Terzaghi also developed the framework for theories of bearing capacity of foundations, and the theory for prediction of the rate of settlement of clay layers due to consolidation.[1][3][5] Afterwards, Maurice Biot fully developed the three-dimensional soil consolidation theory, extending the one-dimensional model previously developed by Terzaghi to more general hypotheses and introducing the set of basic equations of Poroelasticity.

In his 1948 book, Donald Taylor recognized that the interlocking and dilation of densely packed particles contributed to the peak strength of the soil. Roscoe, Schofield, and Wroth, with the publication of On the Yielding of Soils in 1958, established the interrelationships between the volume change behavior (dilation, contraction, and consolidation) and shearing behavior with the theory of plasticity using critical state soil mechanics. Critical state soil mechanics is the basis for many contemporary advanced constitutive models describing the behavior of soil.[6]

In 1960, Alec Skempton carried out an extensive review of the available formulations and experimental data in the literature about the effective stress validity in soil, concrete, and rock in order to reject some of these expressions, as well as clarify what expressions were appropriate according to several working hypotheses, such as stress-strain or strength behavior, saturated or non-saturated media, and rock, concrete or soil behavior.

Roles

[edit]

Geotechnical investigation

[edit]

Geotechnical engineers investigate and determine the properties of subsurface conditions and materials. They also design corresponding earthworks and retaining structures, tunnels, and structure foundations, and may supervise and evaluate sites, which may further involve site monitoring as well as the risk assessment and mitigation of natural hazards.[7][8]

Geotechnical engineers and engineering geologists perform geotechnical investigations to obtain information on the physical properties of soil and rock underlying and adjacent to a site to design earthworks and foundations for proposed structures and for the repair of distress to earthworks and structures caused by subsurface conditions. Geotechnical investigations involve surface and subsurface exploration of a site, often including subsurface sampling and laboratory testing of retrieved soil samples. Sometimes, geophysical methods are also used to obtain data, which include measurement of seismic waves (pressure, shear, and Rayleigh waves), surface-wave methods and downhole methods, and electromagnetic surveys (magnetometer, resistivity, and ground-penetrating radar). Electrical tomography can be used to survey soil and rock properties and existing underground infrastructure in construction projects.[9]

Surface exploration can include on-foot surveys, geologic mapping, geophysical methods, and photogrammetry. Geologic mapping and interpretation of geomorphology are typically completed in consultation with a geologist or engineering geologist. Subsurface exploration usually involves in-situ testing (for example, the standard penetration test and cone penetration test). The digging of test pits and trenching (particularly for locating faults and slide planes) may also be used to learn about soil conditions at depth. Large-diameter borings are rarely used due to safety concerns and expense. Still, they are sometimes used to allow a geologist or engineer to be lowered into the borehole for direct visual and manual examination of the soil and rock stratigraphy.

Various soil samplers exist to meet the needs of different engineering projects. The standard penetration test, which uses a thick-walled split spoon sampler, is the most common way to collect disturbed samples. Piston samplers, employing a thin-walled tube, are most commonly used to collect less disturbed samples. More advanced methods, such as the Sherbrooke block sampler, are superior but expensive. Coring frozen ground provides high-quality undisturbed samples from ground conditions, such as fill, sand, moraine, and rock fracture zones.[10]

Geotechnical centrifuge modeling is another method of testing physical-scale models of geotechnical problems. The use of a centrifuge enhances the similarity of the scale model tests involving soil because soil's strength and stiffness are susceptible to the confining pressure. The centrifugal acceleration allows a researcher to obtain large (prototype-scale) stresses in small physical models.

Foundation design

[edit]

The foundation of a structure's infrastructure transmits loads from the structure to the earth. Geotechnical engineers design foundations based on the load characteristics of the structure and the properties of the soils and bedrock at the site. Generally, geotechnical engineers first estimate the magnitude and location of loads to be supported before developing an investigation plan to explore the subsurface and determine the necessary soil parameters through field and lab testing. Following this, they may begin the design of an engineering foundation. The primary considerations for a geotechnical engineer in foundation design are bearing capacity, settlement, and ground movement beneath the foundations.[11]

Earthworks

[edit]
A compactor/roller operated by U.S. Navy Seabees

Geotechnical engineers are also involved in the planning and execution of earthworks, which include ground improvement,[11] slope stabilization, and slope stability analysis.

Ground improvement

[edit]

Various geotechnical engineering methods can be used for ground improvement, including reinforcement geosynthetics such as geocells and geogrids, which disperse loads over a larger area, increasing the soil's load-bearing capacity. Through these methods, geotechnical engineers can reduce direct and long-term costs.[12]

Slope stabilization

[edit]
Simple slope slip section.

Geotechnical engineers can analyze and improve slope stability using engineering methods. Slope stability is determined by the balance of shear stress and shear strength. A previously stable slope may be initially affected by various factors, making it unstable. Nonetheless, geotechnical engineers can design and implement engineered slopes to increase stability.

Slope stability analysis
[edit]

Stability analysis is needed to design engineered slopes and estimate the risk of slope failure in natural or designed slopes by determining the conditions under which the topmost mass of soil will slip relative to the base of soil and lead to slope failure.[13] If the interface between the mass and the base of a slope has a complex geometry, slope stability analysis is difficult and numerical solution methods are required. Typically, the interface's exact geometry is unknown, and a simplified interface geometry is assumed. Finite slopes require three-dimensional models to be analyzed, so most slopes are analyzed assuming that they are infinitely wide and can be represented by two-dimensional models.

Sub-disciplines

[edit]

Geosynthetics

[edit]
A collage of geosynthetic products.

Geosynthetics are a type of plastic polymer products used in geotechnical engineering that improve engineering performance while reducing costs. This includes geotextiles, geogrids, geomembranes, geocells, and geocomposites. The synthetic nature of the products make them suitable for use in the ground where high levels of durability are required. Their main functions include drainage, filtration, reinforcement, separation, and containment.

Geosynthetics are available in a wide range of forms and materials, each to suit a slightly different end-use, although they are frequently used together. Some reinforcement geosynthetics, such as geogrids and more recently, cellular confinement systems, have shown to improve bearing capacity, modulus factors and soil stiffness and strength.[14] These products have a wide range of applications and are currently used in many civil and geotechnical engineering applications including roads, airfields, railroads, embankments, piled embankments, retaining structures, reservoirs, canals, dams, landfills, bank protection and coastal engineering.[15]

Offshore

[edit]
Platforms offshore Mexico.

Offshore (or marine) geotechnical engineering is concerned with foundation design for human-made structures in the sea, away from the coastline (in opposition to onshore or nearshore engineering). Oil platforms, artificial islands and submarine pipelines are examples of such structures.[16]

There are a number of significant differences between onshore and offshore geotechnical engineering.[16][17] Notably, site investigation and ground improvement on the seabed are more expensive; the offshore structures are exposed to a wider range of geohazards; and the environmental and financial consequences are higher in case of failure. Offshore structures are exposed to various environmental loads, notably wind, waves and currents. These phenomena may affect the integrity or the serviceability of the structure and its foundation during its operational lifespan and need to be taken into account in offshore design.

In subsea geotechnical engineering, seabed materials are considered a two-phase material composed of rock or mineral particles and water.[18][19] Structures may be fixed in place in the seabed—as is the case for piers, jetties and fixed-bottom wind turbines—or may comprise a floating structure that remains roughly fixed relative to its geotechnical anchor point. Undersea mooring of human-engineered floating structures include a large number of offshore oil and gas platforms and, since 2008, a few floating wind turbines. Two common types of engineered design for anchoring floating structures include tension-leg and catenary loose mooring systems.[20]

Observational method

[edit]

First proposed by Karl Terzaghi and later discussed in a paper by Ralph B. Peck, the observational method is a managed process of construction control, monitoring, and review, which enables modifications to be incorporated during and after construction. The method aims to achieve a greater overall economy without compromising safety by creating designs based on the most probable conditions rather than the most unfavorable.[21] Using the observational method, gaps in available information are filled by measurements and investigation, which aid in assessing the behavior of the structure during construction, which in turn can be modified per the findings. The method was described by Peck as "learn-as-you-go".[22]

The observational method may be described as follows:[22]

  1. General exploration sufficient to establish the rough nature, pattern, and properties of deposits.
  2. Assessment of the most probable conditions and the most unfavorable conceivable deviations.
  3. Creating the design based on a working hypothesis of behavior anticipated under the most probable conditions.
  4. Selection of quantities to be observed as construction proceeds and calculating their anticipated values based on the working hypothesis under the most unfavorable conditions.
  5. Selection, in advance, of a course of action or design modification for every foreseeable significant deviation of the observational findings from those predicted.
  6. Measurement of quantities and evaluation of actual conditions.
  7. Design modification per actual conditions

The observational method is suitable for construction that has already begun when an unexpected development occurs or when a failure or accident looms or has already happened. It is unsuitable for projects whose design cannot be altered during construction.[22]

See also

[edit]
  • Civil engineering
  • Deep Foundations Institute
  • Earthquake engineering
  • Earth structure
  • Effective stress
  • Engineering geology
  • Geological Engineering
  • Geoprofessions
  • Hydrogeology
  • International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering
  • Karl von Terzaghi
  • Land reclamation
  • Landfill
  • Mechanically stabilized earth
  • Offshore geotechnical engineering
  • Rock mass classifications
  • Sediment control
  • Seismology
  • Soil mechanics
  • Soil physics
  • Soil science

 

Notes

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  1. ^ a b c d Das, Braja (2006). Principles of Geotechnical Engineering. Thomson Learning.
  2. ^ a b Budhu, Muni (2007). Soil Mechanics and Foundations. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 978-0-471-43117-6.
  3. ^ a b Disturbed soil properties and geotechnical design, Schofield, Andrew N., Thomas Telford, 2006. ISBN 0-7277-2982-9
  4. ^ Guerriero V., Mazzoli S. (2021). "Theory of Effective Stress in Soil and Rock and Implications for Fracturing Processes: A Review". Geosciences. 11 (3): 119. Bibcode:2021Geosc..11..119G. doi:10.3390/geosciences11030119.
  5. ^ Soil Mechanics, Lambe, T.William and Whitman, Robert V., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, John Wiley & Sons., 1969. ISBN 0-471-51192-7
  6. ^ Soil Behavior and Critical State Soil Mechanics, Wood, David Muir, Cambridge University Press, 1990. ISBN 0-521-33782-8
  7. ^ Terzaghi, K., Peck, R.B. and Mesri, G. (1996), Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice 3rd Ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 0-471-08658-4
  8. ^ Holtz, R. and Kovacs, W. (1981), An Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering, Prentice-Hall, Inc. ISBN 0-13-484394-0
  9. ^ Deep Scan Tech (2023): Deep Scan Tech uncovers hidden structures at the site of Denmark's tallest building.
  10. ^ "Geofrost Coring". GEOFROST. Retrieved 20 November 2020.
  11. ^ a b Han, Jie (2015). Principles and Practice of Ground Improvement. Wiley. ISBN 9781118421307.
  12. ^ RAJU, V. R. (2010). Ground Improvement Technologies and Case Histories. Singapore: Research Publishing Services. p. 809. ISBN 978-981-08-3124-0. Ground Improvement – Principles And Applications In Asia.
  13. ^ Pariseau, William G. (2011). Design analysis in rock mechanics. CRC Press.
  14. ^ Hegde, A.M. and Palsule P.S. (2020), Performance of Geosynthetics Reinforced Subgrade Subjected to Repeated Vehicle Loads: Experimental and Numerical Studies. Front. Built Environ. 6:15. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fbuil.2020.00015/full.
  15. ^ Koerner, Robert M. (2012). Designing with Geosynthetics (6th Edition, Vol. 1 ed.). Xlibris. ISBN 9781462882892.
  16. ^ a b Dean, E.T.R. (2010). Offshore Geotechnical Engineering – Principles and Practice. Thomas Telford, Reston, VA, 520 p.
  17. ^ Randolph, M. and Gourvenec, S., 2011. Offshore geotechnical engineering. Spon Press, N.Y., 550 p.
  18. ^ Das, B.M., 2010. Principles of geotechnical engineering. Cengage Learning, Stamford, 666 p.
  19. ^ Atkinson, J., 2007. The mechanics of soils and foundations. Taylor & Francis, N.Y., 442 p.
  20. ^ Floating Offshore Wind Turbines: Responses in a Sea state – Pareto Optimal Designs and Economic Assessment, P. Sclavounos et al., October 2007.
  21. ^ Nicholson, D, Tse, C and Penny, C. (1999). The Observational Method in ground engineering – principles and applications. Report 185, CIRIA, London.
  22. ^ a b c Peck, R.B (1969). Advantages and limitations of the observational method in applied soil mechanics, Geotechnique, 19, No. 1, pp. 171-187.

References

[edit]
  • Bates and Jackson, 1980, Glossary of Geology: American Geological Institute.
  • Krynine and Judd, 1957, Principles of Engineering Geology and Geotechnics: McGraw-Hill, New York.
  • Ventura, Pierfranco, 2019, Fondazioni, Volume 1, Modellazioni statiche e sismiche, Hoepli, Milano
[edit]
  • Worldwide Geotechnical Literature Database

 

A load-bearing wall or bearing wall is a wall that is an active structural element of a building, which holds the weight of the elements above it, by conducting its weight to a foundation structure below it.

Load-bearing walls are one of the earliest forms of construction. The development of the flying buttress in Gothic architecture allowed structures to maintain an open interior space, transferring more weight to the buttresses instead of to central bearing walls. In housing, load-bearing walls are most common in the light construction method known as "platform framing". In the birth of the skyscraper era, the concurrent rise of steel as a more suitable framing system first designed by William Le Baron Jenney, and the limitations of load-bearing construction in large buildings, led to a decline in the use of load-bearing walls in large-scale commercial structures.

Description

[edit]

A load-bearing wall or bearing wall is a wall that is an active structural element of a building — that is, it bears the weight of the elements above said wall, resting upon it by conducting its weight to a foundation structure.[1] The materials most often used to construct load-bearing walls in large buildings are concrete, block, or brick. By contrast, a curtain wall provides no significant structural support beyond what is necessary to bear its own materials or conduct such loads to a bearing wall.[2]

History

[edit]

Load-bearing walls are one of the earliest forms of construction.[3] The development of the flying buttress in Gothic architecture allowed structures to maintain an open interior space, transferring more weight to the buttresses instead of to central bearing walls. The Notre Dame Cathedral is an example of a load-bearing wall structure with flying buttresses.[4]

Application

[edit]

Depending on the type of building and the number of floors, load-bearing walls are gauged to the appropriate thickness to carry the weight above them. Without doing so, it is possible that an outer wall could become unstable if the load exceeds the strength of the material used, potentially leading to the collapse of the structure. The primary function of this wall is to enclose or divide space of the building to make it more functional and useful. It provides privacy, affords security, and gives protection against heat, cold, sun or rain.[5]

Housing

[edit]

In housing, load-bearing walls are most common in the light construction method known as "platform framing", and each load-bearing wall sits on a wall sill plate which is mated to the lowest base plate. The sills are bolted to the masonry or concrete foundation.[6]

A beam of PSL lumber installed to replace a load-bearing wall at the first floor of a three-story building.

The top plate or ceiling plate is the top of the wall, which sits just below the platform of the next floor (at the ceiling). The base plate or floor plate is the bottom attachment point for the wall studs. Using a top plate and a bottom plate, a wall can be constructed while it lies on its side, allowing for end-nailing of the studs between two plates, and then the finished wall can be tipped up vertically into place atop the wall sill; this not only improves accuracy and shortens construction time, but also produces a stronger wall.

Skyscrapers

[edit]
The Chicago Willis Tower uses a bundle of tube structures which, in turn, include numerous outer wall columns.

Due to the immense weight of skyscrapers, the base and walls of the lower floors must be extremely strong. Pilings are used to anchor the building to the bedrock underground. For example, the Burj Khalifa, the world's tallest building as well as the world's tallest structure, uses specially treated and mixed reinforced concrete. Over 45,000 cubic metres (59,000 cu yd) of concrete, weighing more than 110,000 t (120,000 short tons) were used to construct the concrete and steel foundation, which features 192 piles, with each pile being 1.5 m diameter × 43 m long (4.9 ft × 141 ft) and buried more than 50 m (160 ft) deep.[7]

See also

[edit]
  • Column – in most larger, multi-storey buildings, vertical loads are primarily borne by columns / pillars instead of structural walls
  • Tube frame structure – Some of the world's tallest skyscrapers use load-bearing outer frames – be it single tube (e.g. the old WTC Twin Towers), or bundled tube (e.g. the Willis Tower or the Burj Khalifa)

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "How to Identify a Load-Bearing Wall". Lifehacker. Retrieved 2020-06-26.
  2. ^ "Load-bearing wall". www.designingbuildings.co.uk. Retrieved 2020-06-26.
  3. ^ Montaner, Carme (2021-03-31). "8º Simposio Iberoamericano de Historia de la Cartografía. El mapa como elemento de conexión cultural entre América y Europa. Barcelona, 21 y 22 de octubre del 2020". Investigaciones Geográficas (104). doi:10.14350/rig.60378. ISSN 2448-7279. S2CID 233611245.
  4. ^ Mendes, Gilmar de Melo (2012). El equilibrio de la arquitectura organizativa desde el enfoque de agencia: estudio de un caso (Thesis). Universidad de Valladolid. doi:10.35376/10324/921.
  5. ^ "7 FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS A BUILDING WALL SHOULD SATISFY". CivilBlog.Org. 2015-07-08. Retrieved 2020-05-31.
  6. ^ "What is Platform Framing? (with pictures)". wiseGEEK. Retrieved 2020-06-26.
  7. ^ "Burj Khalifa, Dubai | 182168". Emporis. Archived from the original on August 5, 2011. Retrieved 2018-09-17.
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Very happy with my experience. They were prompt and followed through, and very helpful in fixing the crack in my foundation.

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USS was excellent. They are honest, straightforward, trustworthy, and conscientious. They thoughtfully removed the flowers and flower bulbs to dig where they needed in the yard, replanted said flowers and spread the extra dirt to fill in an area of the yard. We've had other services from different companies and our yard was really a mess after. They kept the job site meticulously clean. The crew was on time and friendly. I'd recommend them any day! Thanks to Jessie and crew.

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It was a pleasure to work with Rick and his crew. From the beginning, Rick listened to my concerns and what I wished to accomplish. Out of the 6 contractors that quoted the project, Rick seemed the MOST willing to accommodate my wishes. His pricing was definitely more than fair as well. I had 10 push piers installed to stabilize and lift an addition of my house. The project commenced at the date that Rick had disclosed initially and it was completed within the same time period expected (based on Rick's original assessment). The crew was well informed, courteous, and hard working. They were not loud (even while equipment was being utilized) and were well spoken. My neighbors were very impressed on how polite they were when they entered / exited my property (saying hello or good morning each day when they crossed paths). You can tell they care about the customer concerns. They ensured that the property would be put back as clean as possible by placing MANY sheets of plywood down prior to excavating. They compacted the dirt back in the holes extremely well to avoid large stock piles of soils. All the while, the main office was calling me to discuss updates and expectations of completion. They provided waivers of lien, certificates of insurance, properly acquired permits, and JULIE locates. From a construction background, I can tell you that I did not see any flaws in the way they operated and this an extremely professional company. The pictures attached show the push piers added to the foundation (pictures 1, 2 & 3), the amount of excavation (picture 4), and the restoration after dirt was placed back in the pits and compacted (pictures 5, 6 & 7). Please notice that they also sealed two large cracks and steel plated these cracks from expanding further (which you can see under my sliding glass door). I, as well as my wife, are extremely happy that we chose United Structural Systems for our contractor. I would happily tell any of my friends and family to use this contractor should the opportunity arise!

Chris Abplanalp

(5)

USS did an amazing job on my underpinning on my house, they were also very courteous to the proximity of my property line next to my neighbor. They kept things in order with all the dirt/mud they had to excavate. They were done exactly in the timeframe they indicated, and the contract was very details oriented with drawings of what would be done. Only thing that would have been nice, is they left my concrete a little muddy with boot prints but again, all-in-all a great job

Dave Kari

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What a fantastic experience! Owner Rick Thomas is a trustworthy professional. Nick and the crew are hard working, knowledgeable and experienced. I interviewed every company in the area, big and small. A homeowner never wants to hear that they have foundation issues. Out of every company, I trusted USS the most, and it paid off in the end. Highly recommend.

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