Identifying Early Signs of Reoccurring Settlement

Identifying Early Signs of Reoccurring Settlement

Overview of common issues that may arise after foundation work is completed

Explanation of what settlement is and how it affects residential structures.


Sure, here's a short essay on the topic "Explanation of what settlement is and how it affects residential structures" for the subject "Identifying Early Signs of Recurring Settlement."
Obtaining proper permits is necessary for any foundation repair service foundation repair service market houseplant.
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Settlement refers to the gradual sinking or shifting of a structure into the ground over time. This phenomenon is a natural occurrence in most buildings due to various factors such as the weight of the structure, soil conditions, and environmental influences. While some degree of settlement is normal and expected, excessive or uneven settlement can lead to significant problems for residential structures.

When a house settles, it means that different parts of the foundation are moving at different rates or to different degrees. This can be caused by a variety of factors including poor soil conditions, changes in moisture content in the soil, or even construction practices. For instance, expansive soils that swell when wet and shrink when dry can cause significant movement in a foundation, leading to settlement issues.

The effects of settlement on residential structures can be quite pronounced. One of the most visible signs is the development of cracks in walls, both interior and exterior. These cracks may be vertical, horizontal, or diagonal and can vary in size. Doors and windows may become difficult to open or close properly as the frame shifts out of alignment. Uneven floors, where some areas feel higher or lower than others, are another common symptom.

In more severe cases, settlement can lead to structural damage that compromises the integrity of the home. This might include bowing or sagging beams, separation of the chimney from the house, or even noticeable shifts in the position of the entire structure.

Identifying early signs of recurring settlement is crucial for maintaining the safety and value of a home. Homeowners should be vigilant about monitoring for these signs, especially after heavy rains or droughts, which can exacerbate soil movement. Regular inspections by a professional can help catch these issues early, allowing for timely and effective remediation.

In conclusion, settlement is a natural but potentially problematic aspect of residential structures. Understanding what it is and recognizing the early signs can help homeowners take proactive steps to address issues before they become severe, ensuring the longevity and safety of their homes.

Common causes of settlement in residential foundations.


Sure, here's a human-like essay on the common causes of settlement in residential foundations and identifying early signs of reoccurring settlement:

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When it comes to homeownership, one of the most concerning issues that can arise is the settlement of a residential foundation. Foundation settlement occurs when the soil beneath a house shifts, causing the foundation to move as well. This can lead to a variety of problems, from minor cracks in walls to more severe structural issues. Understanding the common causes of settlement and identifying early signs can help homeowners address issues before they become major problems.

One of the primary causes of foundation settlement is poor soil conditions. Different types of soil react differently to changes in moisture levels. For example, clay soils are known to expand when wet and contract when dry, leading to significant movement beneath a foundation. Conversely, sandy soils can shift easily with changes in water levels or due to external pressures. If a house is built on unstable or improperly compacted soil, it is more susceptible to settlement.

Another common cause is changes in moisture levels. Heavy rainfall, leaking pipes, or improper drainage can lead to increased moisture in the soil, causing it to expand. On the flip side, drought conditions can cause the soil to dry out and contract. Both scenarios put stress on the foundation, leading to settlement.

Additionally, tree roots can play a significant role in foundation settlement. As trees grow, their roots seek out moisture and nutrients, often extending far beyond the tree's canopy. If these roots are near a foundation, they can draw moisture from the soil, causing it to shrink and the foundation to settle. Conversely, when trees are removed, the soil can expand as it retains more moisture, again leading to foundation movement.

Identifying early signs of reoccurring settlement is crucial for timely intervention. One of the most obvious signs is the appearance of cracks in the walls, floors, or ceilings. These cracks may be hairline at first but can widen over time. Doors and windows that stick or no have become difficult to open and close can also indicate foundation issues. Uneven floors, where some areas feel higher or lower than others, are another red flag.

Additionally, gaps between the walls and the floor or ceiling can signal that the foundation is shifting. Exterior signs such as cracks in the brickwork or siding, as well as tilting chimneys, should not be ignored. Paying attention to these early signs can help homeowners take corrective action before the situation worsens.

In conclusion, understanding the common causes of foundation settlement and being vigilant about early signs can save homeowners a great deal of stress and expense. Regular inspections and maintenance, along with proper soil management and drainage, can help mitigate the risks associated with foundation settlement.

Initial signs and symptoms that homeowners should be aware of to detect early settlement.


Certainly! Detecting early signs of reoccurring settlement in a home is crucial for maintaining structural integrity and preventing costly repairs down the line. Homeowners should be vigilant about certain initial signs and symptoms that may indicate settlement is occurring.

One of the first signs to look out for is cracks in the walls, especially if they appear suddenly or worsen over time. These cracks may be hairline at first but can become more pronounced if the settlement continues. Pay close attention to corners of rooms, around windows and doors, and along the foundation.

Another symptom to watch for is uneven floors. If you notice that your floors are sloping or sagging in certain areas, it could be a sign of settlement. This unevenness may be subtle at first, so it's important to regularly check for any changes in the levelness of your floors.

Doors and windows that become difficult to open or close properly can also be indicative of settlement. If you find yourself having to force doors shut or windows open wider than usual, it may be a result of the shifting foundation affecting the alignment of these elements.

Additionally, gaps between walls and ceilings or floors can signal settlement. If you notice spaces developing where there shouldn't be any, it's worth investigating further as this could be a sign of structural movement.

Lastly, keep an eye out for any changes in the exterior of your home, such as cracks in the foundation, sinking or tilting of porches or patios, or uneven ground around the perimeter of your property. These external signs can often provide valuable clues about what may be happening beneath the surface.

In conclusion, being aware of these initial signs and symptoms of reoccurring settlement is essential for homeowners to address potential issues early on. Regular inspections and maintenance can help identify problems before they escalate, ensuring the longevity and safety of your home.

The role of professional residential foundation repair services in identifying and addressing settlement issues.


Certainly! Here's a short essay on the role of professional residential foundation repair services in identifying and addressing settlement issues, specifically focusing on the early signs of reoccurring settlement.

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When it comes to maintaining the structural integrity of a home, the foundation plays a pivotal role. Over time, however, foundations can experience settlement issues, where the soil beneath the foundation shifts or compacts, leading to uneven settling. This can result in a variety of problems, from minor cracks in walls to more severe structural damage. Identifying and addressing these issues early is crucial, and this is where professional residential foundation repair services become invaluable.

Professional foundation repair services bring a wealth of expertise and experience to the table. Trained technicians are skilled at recognizing the early signs of reoccurring settlement. These signs might include hairline cracks in the walls, sticking doors and windows, or uneven floors. While these symptoms might seem minor at first, they can indicate more significant underlying issues.

One of the primary roles of professional services is conducting a thorough inspection of the property. Using advanced tools and techniques, they can assess the extent of the settlement and identify the root causes. This might involve soil testing to determine the composition and stability of the ground beneath the foundation, or employing technologies like laser levels to measure the precise amount of movement.

Moreover, professionals are adept at differentiating between normal settling-which most homes experience to some degree-and problematic settlement that requires intervention. This nuanced understanding allows them to provide tailored solutions that address the specific needs of the home.

Addressing settlement issues often requires a multi-faceted approach. Depending on the severity and cause of the settlement, solutions might range from simple repairs, such as injecting polyurethane foam to lift and stabilize the foundation, to more complex methods like underpinning, where additional support is added beneath the foundation.

In addition to repairing existing damage, professional services also offer preventive measures to mitigate future settlement. This might include recommendations for proper drainage around the home to prevent soil erosion, or advice on tree planting distances to avoid root interference with the foundation.

In conclusion, the role of professional residential foundation repair services in identifying and addressing settlement issues cannot be overstated. Their expertise not only helps in recognizing the early signs of reoccurring settlement but also in providing effective, long-lasting solutions. By engaging these professionals, homeowners can ensure the stability and safety of their homes for years to come.

Methods and techniques used by professionals to assess and diagnose settlement problems.


When it comes to assessing and diagnosing settlement problems in buildings or structures, professionals utilize a range of methods and techniques to identify early signs of reoccurring settlement. Settlement, in this context, refers to the gradual sinking or shifting of a structure due to various factors such as soil movement, inadequate foundation design, or changes in moisture content. Early detection of settlement issues is crucial to prevent structural damage and ensure the safety and longevity of the building.

One of the primary methods used by professionals is visual inspection. This involves a thorough examination of the building's exterior and interior to identify any visible signs of settlement. Cracks in walls, floors, or ceilings, uneven door frames, misaligned windows, and gaps between walls and ceilings are all potential indicators of settlement problems. By carefully assessing these visual cues, professionals can gain valuable insights into the extent and location of settlement issues.

In addition to visual inspection, professionals often employ non-destructive testing techniques to gather more detailed information about settlement problems. One commonly used method is ground penetrating radar (GPR), which uses electromagnetic waves to create a subsurface image of the soil and foundation. By analyzing the GPR data, professionals can identify areas of soil movement, voids, or changes in moisture content that may contribute to settlement issues.

Another technique frequently employed is inclinometer monitoring. Inclinometers are devices installed in boreholes that measure the horizontal movement of the soil. By regularly monitoring the inclinometer readings, professionals can detect any changes in soil movement over time, providing valuable insights into the progression of settlement problems.

Furthermore, professionals may utilize laser leveling or differential GPS technology to precisely measure the vertical and horizontal displacement of the structure. These technologies allow for accurate monitoring of settlement patterns and can help identify areas of concern that may require further investigation or remediation.

In some cases, professionals may also conduct soil testing to assess the geotechnical properties of the underlying soil. This involves collecting soil samples and subjecting them to laboratory analysis to determine factors such as soil composition, moisture content, and compaction. By understanding the soil characteristics, professionals can better assess the potential for settlement issues and develop appropriate remediation strategies.

Overall, the methods and techniques used by professionals to assess and diagnose settlement problems in buildings are multifaceted and comprehensive. Through a combination of visual inspection, non-destructive testing, monitoring technologies, and soil testing, professionals can identify early signs of reoccurring settlement and take necessary actions to mitigate potential structural damage. Early detection and proactive measures are essential in preserving the integrity and safety of buildings, ensuring their longevity for years to come.

Preventive measures homeowners can take to minimize the risk of reoccurring settlement.


Certainly! When it comes to safeguarding your home from the persistent issue of reoccurring settlement, adopting preventive measures is essential. Settlement refers to the gradual sinking or shifting of a home's foundation, which can lead to structural problems if not addressed promptly. Here are some practical steps homeowners can take to minimize the risk of this problem resurfacing:

Firstly, regular maintenance of the home's foundation is crucial. This involves periodic inspections by professionals who can identify early signs of movement or damage. Homeowners should look out for cracks in walls, floors, or the foundation itself, as these can be indicative of settlement issues. Addressing these signs early can prevent minor issues from becoming major problems.

Another important measure is to manage the soil moisture around the foundation effectively. Fluctuations in soil moisture can exacerbate settlement issues. Ensuring proper drainage away from the home, repairing any leaks in gutters or downspouts, and maintaining a consistent landscape grade can help maintain stable soil conditions. Additionally, installing a French drain system can be an effective way to manage excess water and prevent it from undermining the foundation.

Homeowners should also be mindful of the vegetation near their home. Large trees with extensive root systems can draw moisture from the soil, leading to changes in soil volume and, consequently, foundation settlement. Planting trees and shrubs at a safe distance from the home and opting for species with less aggressive root systems can help mitigate this risk.

Furthermore, it's beneficial to avoid heavy loads on the soil near the foundation. This means being cautious with activities like parking heavy vehicles close to the house or undertaking construction projects that could disturb the soil stability.

Lastly, investing in a quality waterproofing system for the basement or crawl space can also play a significant role in preventing settlement issues. Keeping these areas dry reduces the risk of soil erosion and weakening of the foundation.

In conclusion, while reoccurring settlement can be a daunting issue for homeowners, taking proactive and preventive measures can significantly reduce the risk. Regular inspections, effective moisture management, careful landscaping, avoiding heavy soil loads, and waterproofing are all essential strategies in maintaining a stable and secure home foundation.



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Residential Foundation Repair Services

Strong Foundations, Strong Homes


Suspended slab under construction, with the formwork still in place
Suspended slab formwork and rebar in place, ready for concrete pour.

A concrete slab is a common structural element of modern buildings, consisting of a flat, horizontal surface made of cast concrete. Steel-reinforced slabs, typically between 100 and 500 mm thick, are most often used to construct floors and ceilings, while thinner mud slabs may be used for exterior paving ( see below).[1][2]

In many domestic and industrial buildings, a thick concrete slab supported on foundations or directly on the subsoil, is used to construct the ground floor. These slabs are generally classified as ground-bearing or suspended. A slab is ground-bearing if it rests directly on the foundation, otherwise the slab is suspended.[3] For multi-story buildings, there are several common slab designs (

see § Design for more types):

  • Beam and block, also referred to as rib and block, is mostly used in residential and industrial applications. This slab type is made up of pre-stressed beams and hollow blocks and are temporarily propped until set, typically after 21 days.[4]
  • A hollow core slab which is precast and installed on site with a crane
  • In high rise buildings and skyscrapers, thinner, pre-cast concrete slabs are slung between the steel frames to form the floors and ceilings on each level. Cast in-situ slabs are used in high rise buildings and large shopping complexes as well as houses. These in-situ slabs are cast on site using shutters and reinforced steel.

On technical drawings, reinforced concrete slabs are often abbreviated to "r.c.c. slab" or simply "r.c.". Calculations and drawings are often done by structural engineers in CAD software.

Thermal performance

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Energy efficiency has become a primary concern for the construction of new buildings, and the prevalence of concrete slabs calls for careful consideration of its thermal properties in order to minimise wasted energy.[5] Concrete has similar thermal properties to masonry products, in that it has a relatively high thermal mass and is a good conductor of heat.

In some special cases, the thermal properties of concrete have been employed, for example as a heatsink in nuclear power plants or a thermal buffer in industrial freezers.[6]

Thermal conductivity

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Thermal conductivity of a concrete slab indicates the rate of heat transfer through the solid mass by conduction, usually in regard to heat transfer to or from the ground. The coefficient of thermal conductivity, k, is proportional to density of the concrete, among other factors.[5] The primary influences on conductivity are moisture content, type of aggregate, type of cement, constituent proportions, and temperature. These various factors complicate the theoretical evaluation of a k-value, since each component has a different conductivity when isolated, and the position and proportion of each components affects the overall conductivity. To simplify this, particles of aggregate may be considered to be suspended in the homogeneous cement. Campbell-Allen and Thorne (1963) derived a formula for the theoretical thermal conductivity of concrete.[6] In practice this formula is rarely applied, but remains relevant for theoretical use. Subsequently, Valore (1980) developed another formula in terms of overall density.[7] However, this study concerned hollow concrete blocks and its results are unverified for concrete slabs.

The actual value of k varies significantly in practice, and is usually between 0.8 and 2.0 W m−1 K−1.[8] This is relatively high when compared to other materials, for example the conductivity of wood may be as low as 0.04 W m−1 K−1. One way of mitigating the effects of thermal conduction is to introduce insulation (

see § Insulation).

Thermal mass

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The second consideration is the high thermal mass of concrete slabs, which applies similarly to walls and floors, or wherever concrete is used within the thermal envelope. Concrete has a relatively high thermal mass, meaning that it takes a long time to respond to changes in ambient temperature.[9] This is a disadvantage when rooms are heated intermittently and require a quick response, as it takes longer to warm the entire building, including the slab. However, the high thermal mass is an advantage in climates with large daily temperature swings, where the slab acts as a regulator, keeping the building cool by day and warm by night.

Typically concrete slabs perform better than implied by their R-value.[5] The R-value does not consider thermal mass, since it is tested under constant temperature conditions. Thus, when a concrete slab is subjected to fluctuating temperatures, it will respond more slowly to these changes and in many cases increase the efficiency of a building.[5] In reality, there are many factors which contribute to the effect of thermal mass, including the depth and composition of the slab, as well as other properties of the building such as orientation and windows.

Thermal mass is also related to thermal diffusivity, heat capacity and insulation. Concrete has low thermal diffusivity, high heat capacity, and its thermal mass is negatively affected by insulation (e.g. carpet).[5]

Insulation

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Without insulation, concrete slabs cast directly on the ground can cause a significant amount of extraneous energy transfer by conduction, resulting in either lost heat or unwanted heat. In modern construction, concrete slabs are usually cast above a layer of insulation such as expanded polystyrene, and the slab may contain underfloor heating pipes.[10] However, there are still uses for a slab that is not insulated, for example in outbuildings which are not heated or cooled to room temperature (

see § Mud slabs). In these cases, casting the slab directly onto a substrate of aggregate will maintain the slab near the temperature of the substrate throughout the year, and can prevent both freezing and overheating.

A common type of insulated slab is the beam and block system (mentioned above) which is modified by replacing concrete blocks with expanded polystyrene blocks.[11] This not only allows for better insulation but decreases the weight of slab which has a positive effect on load bearing walls and foundations.

Formwork set for concrete pour.
Concrete poured into formwork. This slab is ground-bearing and reinforced with steel rebar.

Design

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Ground-bearing slabs

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Ground-bearing slabs, also known as "on-ground" or "slab-on-grade", are commonly used for ground floors on domestic and some commercial applications. It is an economical and quick construction method for sites that have non-reactive soil and little slope.[12]

For ground-bearing slabs, it is important to design the slab around the type of soil, since some soils such as clay are too dynamic to support a slab consistently across its entire area. This results in cracking and deformation, potentially leading to structural failure of any members attached to the floor, such as wall studs.[12]

Levelling the site before pouring concrete is an important step, as sloping ground will cause the concrete to cure unevenly and will result in differential expansion. In some cases, a naturally sloping site may be levelled simply by removing soil from the uphill site. If a site has a more significant grade, it may be a candidate for the "cut and fill" method, where soil from the higher ground is removed, and the lower ground is built up with fill.[13]

In addition to filling the downhill side, this area of the slab may be supported on concrete piers which extend into the ground. In this case, the fill material is less important structurally as the dead weight of the slab is supported by the piers. However, the fill material is still necessary to support the curing concrete and its reinforcement.

There are two common methods of filling - controlled fill and rolled fill.[13]

  • Controlled fill: Fill material is compacted in several layers by a vibrating plate or roller. Sand fills areas up to around 800 mm deep, and clay may be used to fill areas up to 400 mm deep. However, clay is much more reactive than sand, so it should be used sparingly and carefully. Clay must be moist during compaction to homogenise it.[13]
  • Rolled fill: Fill is repeatedly compacted by an excavator, but this method of compaction is less effective than a vibrator or roller. Thus, the regulations on maximum depth are typically stricter.

Proper curing of ground-bearing concrete is necessary to obtain adequate strength. Since these slabs are inevitably poured on-site (rather than precast as some suspended slabs are), it can be difficult to control conditions to optimize the curing process. This is usually aided by a membrane, either plastic (temporary) or a liquid compound (permanent).[14]

Ground-bearing slabs are usually supplemented with some form of reinforcement, often steel rebar. However, in some cases such as concrete roads, it is acceptable to use an unreinforced slab if it is adequately engineered (

see below).

Suspended slabs

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For a suspended slab, there are a number of designs to improve the strength-to-weight ratio. In all cases the top surface remains flat, and the underside is modulated:

  • A corrugated slab is designed when the concrete is poured into a corrugated steel tray, more commonly called decking. This steel tray improves strength of the slab, and prevents the slab from bending under its own weight. The corrugations run in one direction only.
  • A ribbed slab gives considerably more strength in one direction. This is achieved with concrete beams bearing load between piers or columns, and thinner, integral ribs in the perpendicular direction. An analogy in carpentry would be a subfloor of bearers and joists. Ribbed slabs have higher load ratings than corrugated or flat slabs, but are inferior to waffle slabs.[15]
  • A waffle slab gives added strength in both directions using a matrix of recessed segments beneath the slab.[16] This is the same principle used in the ground-bearing version, the waffle slab foundation. Waffle slabs are usually deeper than ribbed slabs of equivalent strength, and are heavier hence require stronger foundations. However, they provide increased mechanical strength in two dimensions, a characteristic important for vibration resistance and soil movement.[17]
The exposed underside of a waffle slab used in a multi-storey building

Unreinforced slabs

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Unreinforced or "plain"[18] slabs are becoming rare and have limited practical applications, with one exception being the mud slab (

see below). They were once common in the US, but the economic value of reinforced ground-bearing slabs has become more appealing for many engineers.[10] Without reinforcement, the entire load on these slabs is supported by the strength of the concrete, which becomes a vital factor. As a result, any stress induced by a load, static or dynamic, must be within the limit of the concrete's flexural strength to prevent cracking.[19] Since unreinforced concrete is relatively very weak in tension, it is important to consider the effects of tensile stress caused by reactive soil, wind uplift, thermal expansion, and cracking.[20] One of the most common applications for unreinforced slabs is in concrete roads.

Mud slabs

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Mud slabs, also known as rat slabs, are thinner than the more common suspended or ground-bearing slabs (usually 50 to 150 mm), and usually contain no reinforcement.[21] This makes them economical and easy to install for temporary or low-usage purposes such as subfloors, crawlspaces, pathways, paving, and levelling surfaces.[22] In general, they may be used for any application which requires a flat, clean surface. This includes use as a base or "sub-slab" for a larger structural slab. On uneven or steep surfaces, this preparatory measure is necessary to provide a flat surface on which to install rebar and waterproofing membranes.[10] In this application, a mud slab also prevents the plastic bar chairs from sinking into soft topsoil which can cause spalling due to incomplete coverage of the steel. Sometimes a mud slab may be a substitute for coarse aggregate. Mud slabs typically have a moderately rough surface, finished with a float.[10]

Substrate and rebar prepared for pouring a mud slab

Axes of support

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One-way slabs

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A one-way slab has moment-resisting reinforcement only in its short axis, and is used when the moment in the long axis is negligible.[23] Such designs include corrugated slabs and ribbed slabs. Non-reinforced slabs may also be considered one-way if they are supported on only two opposite sides (i.e. they are supported in one axis). A one-way reinforced slab may be stronger than a two-way non-reinforced slab, depending on the type of load.

The calculation of reinforcement requirements for a one-way slab can be extremely tedious and time-consuming, and one can never be completely certain of the best design.[citation needed] Even minor changes to the project can necessitate recalculation of the reinforcement requirements. There are many factors to consider during the structural structure design of one-way slabs, including:

  • Load calculations
  • Bending moment calculation
  • Acceptable depth of flexure and deflection
  • Type and distribution of reinforcing steel

Two-way slabs

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A two-way slab has moment resisting reinforcement in both directions.[24] This may be implemented due to application requirements such as heavy loading, vibration resistance, clearance below the slab, or other factors. However, an important characteristic governing the requirement of a two-way slab is the ratio of the two horizontal lengths. If where is the short dimension and is the long dimension, then moment in both directions should be considered in design.[25] In other words, if the axial ratio is greater than two, a two-way slab is required.

A non-reinforced slab is two-way if it is supported in both horizontal axes.

Construction

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A concrete slab may be prefabricated (precast), or constructed on site.

Prefabricated

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Prefabricated concrete slabs are built in a factory and transported to the site, ready to be lowered into place between steel or concrete beams. They may be pre-stressed (in the factory), post-stressed (on site), or unstressed.[10] It is vital that the wall supporting structure is built to the correct dimensions, or the slabs may not fit.

On-site

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On-site concrete slabs are built on the building site using formwork, a type of boxing into which the wet concrete is poured. If the slab is to be reinforced, the rebars, or metal bars, are positioned within the formwork before the concrete is poured in.[26] Plastic-tipped metal or plastic bar chairs, are used to hold the rebar away from the bottom and sides of the form-work, so that when the concrete sets it completely envelops the reinforcement. This concept is known as concrete cover. For a ground-bearing slab, the formwork may consist only of side walls pushed into the ground. For a suspended slab, the formwork is shaped like a tray, often supported by a temporary scaffold until the concrete sets.

The formwork is commonly built from wooden planks and boards, plastic, or steel. On commercial building sites, plastic and steel are gaining popularity as they save labour.[27] On low-budget or small-scale jobs, for instance when laying a concrete garden path, wooden planks are very common. After the concrete has set the wood may be removed.

Formwork can also be permanent, and remain in situ post concrete pour. For large slabs or paths that are poured in sections, this permanent formwork can then also act as isolation joints within concrete slabs to reduce the potential for cracking due to concrete expansion or movement.

In some cases formwork is not necessary. For instance, a ground slab surrounded by dense soil, brick or block foundation walls, where the walls act as the sides of the tray and hardcore (rubble) acts as the base.

See also

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  • Shallow foundation (Commonly used for ground-bearing slabs)
  • Hollow-core slab (Voided slab, one-way spanning)
  • Beam and block (voided slab, one way spanning)
  • Voided biaxial slab (Voided slab, two-way spanning)
  • Formwork
  • Precast concrete
  • Reinforced concrete
  • Rebar
  • Concrete cover

References

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  1. ^ Garber, G. Design and Construction of Concrete Floors. 2nd ed. Amsterdam: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2006. 47. Print.
  2. ^ Duncan, Chester I. Soils and Foundations for Architects and Engineers. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1992. 299. Print.
  3. ^ "Ground slabs - Introduction". www.dlsweb.rmit.edu.au. Archived from the original on 2019-11-18. Retrieved 2017-12-07.
  4. ^ "What is a rib and block slab?". www.royalconcreteslabs.co.za. Royal concrete slabs.
  5. ^ a b c d e Cavanaugh, Kevin; et al. (2002). Guide to Thermal Properties of Concrete and Masonry Systems: Reported by ACI Committee 122. American Concrete Institute.
  6. ^ a b Campbell-Allen, D.; Thorne, C.P. (March 1963). "The thermal conductivity of concrete". Magazine of Concrete Research. 15 (43): 39–48. doi:10.1680/macr.1963.15.43.39. UDC 691.32.001:536.21:691.322.
  7. ^ Valore, R.C. Jr. (February 1980). "Calculation of U-values of Hollow Concrete Masonry". Concrete International. 2: 40–63.
  8. ^ Young, Hugh D. (1992). "Table 15.5". University Physics (7th ed.). Addison Wesley. ISBN 0201529815.
  9. ^ Sabnis, Gajanan M.; Juhl, William (2016). "Chapter 4: Sustainability through Thermal Mass of Concrete". Green Building with Concrete: Sustainable Design and Construction (2nd ed.). Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN 978-1-4987-0411-3.
  10. ^ a b c d e Garber, George (2006). Design and Construction of Concrete Floors (2nd ed.). Amsterdam: Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-7506-6656-5.
  11. ^ "What is a polystyrene concrete slab?". www.royalconcreteslabs.co.za. Royal concrete slabs.
  12. ^ a b McKinney, Arthur W.; et al. (2006). Design of Slabs-on-Ground: Reported by ACI Committee 360 (PDF). American Concrete Institute. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-05-08. Retrieved 2019-04-04.
  13. ^ a b c Staines, Allan (2014). The Australian House Building Manual. Pinedale Press. pp. 40–41. ISBN 978-1-875217-07-6.
  14. ^ "Concrete in Practice 11 - Curing In-Place Concrete" (PDF). Engineering.com. National Ready Mixed Concrete Association. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 April 2019. Retrieved 4 April 2019.
  15. ^ "Ribbed Slabs Datasheet" (PDF). Kaset Kalip. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 March 2018. Retrieved 4 April 2019.
  16. ^ "Ribbed and waffle slabs". www.concretecentre.com. Retrieved 2019-04-04.
  17. ^ Concrete Framed Buildings: A Guide to Design and Construction. MPA The Concrete Centre. 2016. ISBN 978-1-904818-40-3.
  18. ^ Garrison, Tim (19 February 2014). "Clearing the confusion on 'plain concrete'". Civil & Structural Engineer. Archived from the original on 8 May 2019. Retrieved 8 May 2019.
  19. ^ Walker, Wayne. "Reinforcement for slabs on ground". Concrete Construction. Retrieved 8 May 2019.
  20. ^ "Rupture depth of an unreinforced concrete slab on grade" (PDF). Aluminium Association of Florida, Inc. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-09-26. Retrieved 2019-05-08.
  21. ^ Arcoma, Peter. "What is a mud slab?". Builder-Questions.com. Retrieved 8 May 2019.
  22. ^ Postma, Mark; et al. "Floor Slabs". Whole Building Design Guide. National Institute of Building Sciences. Retrieved 8 May 2019.
  23. ^ Gilbert, R. I. (1980). UNICIV Report 211 (PDF). University of New South Wales.
  24. ^ Prieto-Portar, L. A. (2008). EGN-5439 The Design of Tall Buildings; Lecture #14: The Design of Reinforced Concrete Slabs (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-08-29. Retrieved 2019-04-04.
  25. ^ "What is the difference between one way and two way slab?". Basic Civil Engineering. 16 June 2019. Retrieved 8 July 2019.
  26. ^ Concrete Basics: A Guide to Concrete Practice (6th ed.). Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia. 2004. p. 53.
  27. ^ Nemati, Kamran M. (2005). "Temporary Structures: Formwork for Concrete" (PDF). Tokyo Institute of Technology. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 July 2018. Retrieved 4 April 2019.
[edit]
  • Concrete Basics: A Guide to Concrete Practice
  • Super Insulated Slab Foundations
  • Design of Slabs on Ground Archived 2021-05-08 at the Wayback Machine

 

 

Soil with broken rock fragments overlying bedrock, Sandside Bay, Caithness, Scotland
Soil profile with bedrock labeled R

In geology, bedrock is solid rock that lies under loose material (regolith) within the crust of Earth or another terrestrial planet.

Definition

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Bedrock is the solid rock that underlies looser surface material.[1] An exposed portion of bedrock is often called an outcrop.[2] The various kinds of broken and weathered rock material, such as soil and subsoil, that may overlie the bedrock are known as regolith.[3][4]

Engineering geology

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The surface of the bedrock beneath the soil cover (regolith) is also known as rockhead in engineering geology,[5][6] and its identification by digging, drilling or geophysical methods is an important task in most civil engineering projects. Superficial deposits can be very thick, such that the bedrock lies hundreds of meters below the surface.[7]

Weathering of bedrock

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Exposed bedrock experiences weathering, which may be physical or chemical, and which alters the structure of the rock to leave it susceptible to erosion. Bedrock may also experience subsurface weathering at its upper boundary, forming saprolite.[8]

Geologic map

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A geologic map of an area will usually show the distribution of differing bedrock types, rock that would be exposed at the surface if all soil or other superficial deposits were removed. Where superficial deposits are so thick that the underlying bedrock cannot be reliably mapped, the superficial deposits will be mapped instead (for example, as alluvium).[9]

See also

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  • icon Geology portal
  • icon Geography portal
  • Maps portal
  • Minerals portal

References

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  1. ^ Jackson, Julia A., ed. (1997). "Bedrock". Glossary of geology (4th ed.). Alexandria, Virginia: American Geological Institute. ISBN 0922152349.
  2. ^ Jackson 1997, "Outcrop".
  3. ^ Jackson 1997, "Regolith".
  4. ^ Allaby, Michael (2013). "Regolith". A dictionary of geology and earth sciences (4th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199653065.
  5. ^ Price, David George (2009). "The Basis of Engineering Geology". In de Freitas, Michael H. (ed.). Engineering Geology: Principles and Practice. Springer. p. 16. ISBN 978-3540292494.
  6. ^ McLean, A.C.; Gribble, C.D. (9 September 1985). Geology for Civil Engineers (Second ed.). CRC Press. p. 113. ISBN 978-0419160007.
  7. ^ Swinford, E. Mac (2004). "What the glaciers left behind  – the drift-thickness map of Ohio" (PDF). Ohio Geology. No. 1. Ohio Department of Natural Resources, Division of Geological Survey. pp. 1, 3–5. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 October 2012. Retrieved 12 September 2012.
  8. ^ Lidmar-Bergström, Karna; Olsson, Siv; Olvmo, Mats (January 1997). "Palaeosurfaces and associated saprolites in southern Sweden". Geological Society, London, Special Publications. 120 (1): 95–124. Bibcode:1997GSLSP.120...95L. doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1997.120.01.07. S2CID 129229906. Retrieved 21 April 2010.
  9. ^ "Digital Geology – Bedrock geology theme". British Geological Survey. Archived from the original on 13 December 2009. Retrieved 12 November 2009.

Further reading

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  • Rafferty, John P. "Bedrock". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 29 July 2019. Retrieved 1 April 2019.
  • Harris, Clay (2013). "Bedrock". In Lerner, K. Lee; Lerner, Brenda Wilmoth (eds.). The Gale Encyclopedia of Science. Vol. 1 (5th ed.). Farmington Hills, MI: Cengage Gale. pp. 515–516.
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  • Media related to Bedrock at Wikimedia Commons

 

Foundation(s) or The Foundation(s) may refer to:

Common uses

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  • Foundation (cosmetics), a skin-coloured makeup cream applied to the face
  • Foundation (engineering), the element of a structure which connects it to the ground, and transfers loads from the structure to the ground
  • Foundation (evidence), a legal term
  • Foundation (nonprofit), a type of charitable organization
    • Foundation (United States law), a type of charitable organization in the U.S.
    • Private foundation, a charitable organization that might not qualify as a public charity by government standards

Arts, entertainment, and media

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Film and TV

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  • The Foundation, a film about 1960s-1970s Aboriginal history in Sydney, featuring Gary Foley
  • The Foundation (1984 TV series), a Hong Kong series
  • The Foundation (Canadian TV series), a 2009–2010 Canadian sitcom
  • "The Foundation" (Seinfeld), an episode
  • Foundation (TV series), an Apple TV+ series adapted from Isaac Asimov's novels

Games

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  • Foundation (video game), a city-building game (2025)
  • Foundation, an Amiga video game
  • The Foundation, a character in 2017 game Fortnite Battle Royale

Literature

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  • Foundation (book series), a series of science fiction books by Isaac Asimov
    • Foundation (Asimov novel), the first book in Asimov's series, published in 1951
  • Foundation (b-boy book), by Joseph G. Schloss
  • Foundation (Lackey novel), a 2008 fantasy novel by Mercedes Lackey

Music

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  • The Foundations, a British soul group
  • Foundations (EP), by Serj Tankian

Albums

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  • Foundation (Brand Nubian album)
  • Foundation (Breakage album)
  • Foundation (Doc Watson album)
  • Foundation (Magnum album)
  • Foundation (M.O.P. album)
  • Foundation, a 1997 compilation album by Die Krupps
  • The Foundation (Geto Boys album)
  • The Foundation (Pep Love album), 2005
  • The Foundation (Zac Brown Band album)
  • The Foundations (album), by 4 Corners

Songs

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  • "Foundation", a 1983 song by Spandau Ballet from the album True
  • "Foundation", a 1998 song by Brand Nubian from the eponymous album Foundation
  • "Foundation", a 2009 song by M.O.P. from the eponymous album Foundation
  • "Foundation", a 2010 song by Breakage from the eponymous album Foundation
  • "Foundation", a 2015 song by Years & Years from Communion
  • "Foundations" (song), by Kate Nash
  • "The Foundation" (song), by Xzibit

Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media

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  • Foundation – The International Review of Science Fiction, a literary journal
  • The Foundation Trilogy (BBC Radio), a radio adaption of Asimov's series
  • The SCP Foundation, a fictional organization that is often referred to in-universe as "The Foundation"

Education

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  • Foundation degree, a British academic qualification
  • Foundation school, a type of school in England and Wales
  • Foundation Stage, a stage of education for children aged 3 to 5 in England
  • University Foundation Programme, a British university entrance course

Science and technology

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  • Foundation (framework), a free collection of tools for creating websites and web applications by ZURB
  • Foundation Fieldbus, a communications system
  • Foundation Kit, an Apple API

Companies

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  • Foundation Medicine, a genomic profiling company

See also

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  • All pages with titles beginning with Foundation
  • All pages with titles beginning with The Foundation
  • Foundations of mathematics, theory of mathematics
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Reviews for


Jeffery James

(5)

Very happy with my experience. They were prompt and followed through, and very helpful in fixing the crack in my foundation.

Sarah McNeily

(5)

USS was excellent. They are honest, straightforward, trustworthy, and conscientious. They thoughtfully removed the flowers and flower bulbs to dig where they needed in the yard, replanted said flowers and spread the extra dirt to fill in an area of the yard. We've had other services from different companies and our yard was really a mess after. They kept the job site meticulously clean. The crew was on time and friendly. I'd recommend them any day! Thanks to Jessie and crew.

Jim de Leon

(5)

It was a pleasure to work with Rick and his crew. From the beginning, Rick listened to my concerns and what I wished to accomplish. Out of the 6 contractors that quoted the project, Rick seemed the MOST willing to accommodate my wishes. His pricing was definitely more than fair as well. I had 10 push piers installed to stabilize and lift an addition of my house. The project commenced at the date that Rick had disclosed initially and it was completed within the same time period expected (based on Rick's original assessment). The crew was well informed, courteous, and hard working. They were not loud (even while equipment was being utilized) and were well spoken. My neighbors were very impressed on how polite they were when they entered / exited my property (saying hello or good morning each day when they crossed paths). You can tell they care about the customer concerns. They ensured that the property would be put back as clean as possible by placing MANY sheets of plywood down prior to excavating. They compacted the dirt back in the holes extremely well to avoid large stock piles of soils. All the while, the main office was calling me to discuss updates and expectations of completion. They provided waivers of lien, certificates of insurance, properly acquired permits, and JULIE locates. From a construction background, I can tell you that I did not see any flaws in the way they operated and this an extremely professional company. The pictures attached show the push piers added to the foundation (pictures 1, 2 & 3), the amount of excavation (picture 4), and the restoration after dirt was placed back in the pits and compacted (pictures 5, 6 & 7). Please notice that they also sealed two large cracks and steel plated these cracks from expanding further (which you can see under my sliding glass door). I, as well as my wife, are extremely happy that we chose United Structural Systems for our contractor. I would happily tell any of my friends and family to use this contractor should the opportunity arise!

Chris Abplanalp

(5)

USS did an amazing job on my underpinning on my house, they were also very courteous to the proximity of my property line next to my neighbor. They kept things in order with all the dirt/mud they had to excavate. They were done exactly in the timeframe they indicated, and the contract was very details oriented with drawings of what would be done. Only thing that would have been nice, is they left my concrete a little muddy with boot prints but again, all-in-all a great job

Dave Kari

(5)

What a fantastic experience! Owner Rick Thomas is a trustworthy professional. Nick and the crew are hard working, knowledgeable and experienced. I interviewed every company in the area, big and small. A homeowner never wants to hear that they have foundation issues. Out of every company, I trusted USS the most, and it paid off in the end. Highly recommend.

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