Protecting Components from Physical Damage

Importance of Proper Refrigerant Levels

Mobile homes, with their compact and often intricate design, present unique challenges in maintaining the integrity of their HVAC systems. These systems are essential for ensuring comfort within the confined spaces of mobile homes, yet they are also particularly susceptible to physical damage. Mobile home HVAC systems should comply with local codes and regulations mobile home hvac replacement cost allergen. Understanding the common causes of such physical damage is crucial for homeowners and maintenance professionals alike, as it provides a foundation for implementing effective protective measures.


One prevalent cause of physical damage to HVAC components in mobile homes is exposure to environmental elements. Mobile homes are often located in areas where they face extreme weather conditions, including heavy rain, high winds, and intense sunlight. Over time, these environmental factors can lead to corrosion and deterioration of the HVAC units' external parts. For instance, metal components may rust or degrade when exposed to moisture and fluctuating temperatures. Protective covers or enclosures can be instrumental in shielding these components from harsh weather conditions.


Another significant factor contributing to physical damage is improper installation or handling. The installation process for HVAC systems in mobile homes can be complex due to limited space and accessibility issues. Mistakes during this process-such as inadequate securing of units or improper alignment-can lead to strain on the system's parts over time. Additionally, handling errors during routine maintenance or repairs can inadvertently damage delicate components like coils or electrical connections. To mitigate these risks, hiring experienced technicians who understand the nuances of mobile home HVAC systems is advisable.


Moreover, pests pose a threat to the physical integrity of HVAC components in mobile homes. Rodents and insects may seek refuge within these units, gnawing on wires or nesting in ductwork. Such infestations not only compromise the efficiency of the system but also increase the risk of electrical shorts or other malfunctions. Regular inspections and sealing potential entry points can help prevent pest-related damage.


Finally, accidental impacts are a common source of harm to HVAC systems in mobile home settings. Whether from lawn equipment striking outdoor units or children playing nearby inadvertently damaging components, physical impacts can result in dents or misalignments that affect system performance. Establishing clear zones around outdoor units where activities are restricted can serve as a preventative measure against such accidental damages.


In conclusion, while mobile home HVAC systems face distinctive challenges regarding physical damage due to their environment and structural constraints, awareness and proactive measures play pivotal roles in safeguarding these critical components. By addressing environmental exposure through protective enclosures, ensuring proper installation by skilled professionals, preventing pest intrusion with regular inspections, and minimizing accidental impacts through designated safe zones-homeowners can significantly enhance the durability and reliability of their HVAC systems. Through understanding these common causes and implementing appropriate protective strategies, we not only preserve our investment but ensure lasting comfort within our mobile homes.

In the realm of machinery and technology, the adage "an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure" holds significant truth. Regular maintenance and inspection play a crucial role in safeguarding components from physical damage, ensuring longevity and optimal performance. This preventive approach not only minimizes the risk of unexpected failures but also enhances the overall efficiency and reliability of systems.


At the heart of any mechanical or electronic system are its individual components, each performing a specific function that contributes to the whole. These components, whether they are gears, circuits, or hydraulic parts, are subject to wear and tear over time due to continuous operation. Without regular checks and upkeep, even minor issues can escalate into significant problems, potentially leading to costly repairs or replacement.


Regular maintenance involves routine tasks such as cleaning, lubricating moving parts, tightening loose connections, and replacing worn-out elements. These actions help maintain the integrity of components by preventing rusting, corrosion, overheating, and other forms of deterioration that could lead to physical damage. Similarly, inspections allow for the early detection of potential issues before they develop into serious defects. Through thorough assessments using diagnostic tools and manual checks, technicians can identify signs of fatigue or impending failure that might not be immediately visible.


The benefits of regular maintenance extend beyond mere damage prevention. When components are kept in good condition through consistent care, systems tend to operate more efficiently. This efficiency translates to reduced energy consumption and improved performance metrics-factors that are particularly critical in industries where downtime equates to substantial financial losses.


Moreover, adhering to a strict maintenance schedule fosters a culture of safety within organizations. By ensuring that all equipment is functioning correctly and safely through inspections, companies can reduce workplace accidents caused by malfunctioning machinery. It demonstrates a commitment to employee welfare while also protecting investment in costly equipment.


In conclusion, while it may be tempting for businesses or individuals to defer routine maintenance due to perceived immediate cost savings or time constraints, this mindset often proves detrimental in the long run. The importance of regular maintenance and inspection cannot be overstated when it comes to protecting components from physical damage. Embracing this proactive approach ensures not only the durability and dependability of machines but also promotes overall operational excellence-benefits that far outweigh any initial expenditures on preventive measures.

Recognizing Signs of Refrigerant Leaks in Mobile Home Systems

Refrigerant leaks in mobile home systems can lead to significant issues, not only impacting the efficiency of cooling and heating systems but also posing environmental and health risks.. Recognizing the signs of these leaks is crucial for timely intervention and prevention of future occurrences.

Posted by on 2024-12-27

How Energy Efficiency Upgrades Lower Mobile Home Utility Costs

Title: Accessing Funding and Incentives for Upgrades: How Energy Efficiency Upgrades Lower Mobile Home Utility Costs In today's world, where environmental consciousness and economic prudence go hand in hand, mobile home owners are increasingly turning towards energy efficiency upgrades to reduce utility costs.. These improvements not only pave the way for a more sustainable lifestyle but also offer significant financial relief.

Posted by on 2024-12-27

Signs and Symptoms of Low Refrigerant

In the world of modern architecture and building management, HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning) systems are indispensable. They ensure comfort, control air quality, and maintain optimal temperature levels within buildings. However, given their outdoor placement or exposure in various environments, these units often face numerous environmental hazards that can cause physical damage. Protecting these vital components is essential for ensuring their longevity and functionality.


One of the primary strategies for shielding HVAC units from environmental hazards is through the use of protective enclosures. These enclosures can range from simple covers to more elaborate structures designed specifically to withstand harsh weather conditions such as rain, snow, hail, and extreme temperatures. By providing a barrier between the unit and the elements, these enclosures help prevent rusting and corrosion of metal parts while also protecting electrical components from water ingress.


Another effective strategy involves regular maintenance and inspections. Scheduled checks allow facility managers to identify potential vulnerabilities before they escalate into significant issues. For instance, cleaning debris such as leaves or dirt that accumulate around an HVAC unit can prevent blockages in airflow that might otherwise lead to overheating or mechanical failure. Moreover, routine inspections help in identifying signs of wear and tear early on so that repairs or replacements can be carried out promptly.


Additionally, strategic placement of HVAC units plays a crucial role in minimizing exposure to environmental hazards. Installing units under overhangs or within shaded areas can protect them from direct sunlight and reduce the risk of overheating during hot weather conditions. Similarly, elevating units off the ground helps guard against flooding damage during heavy rains or melting snow.


Using materials resistant to environmental harm is another key consideration when aiming to shield HVAC systems effectively. For example, utilizing stainless steel components instead of regular steel can significantly reduce susceptibility to rusting. Coatings and sealants designed to withstand UV radiation or moisture provide additional layers of protection against common environmental threats.


Finally, employing landscaping techniques geared towards protection offers both functional and aesthetic benefits. Planting shrubs or trees strategically around an HVAC unit not only provides shade but also serves as a windbreak during storms or high winds. However, it's important to ensure that vegetation does not obstruct airflow or require excessive watering that could contribute to moisture buildup near the unit.


In conclusion, safeguarding HVAC systems from environmental hazards requires a multifaceted approach involving protective enclosures, regular maintenance checks, strategic placement considerations, material selection aimed at durability under adverse conditions, and thoughtful landscaping practices. By implementing these strategies diligently, property owners can significantly decrease instances of physical damage while extending the operational life span of their HVAC investments-ultimately leading to enhanced performance reliability and cost savings over time.

Signs and Symptoms of Low Refrigerant

Impact of Low Refrigerant on HVAC System Performance

In the complex tapestry of modern infrastructure, ductwork and electrical connections form the unseen veins that keep a building functional and habitable. These components are vital for ensuring air quality, energy efficiency, and safety. Yet, they are often overlooked until a failure occurs, leading to costly repairs or hazardous situations. Thus, safeguarding these crucial elements from physical damage is imperative.


One of the first steps in protecting ductwork is understanding its vulnerability. Ducts can be easily damaged by physical impacts during construction or renovation activities. To mitigate this risk, it is essential to install protective barriers or casings around exposed duct areas. Additionally, marking ducts clearly on construction blueprints can help workers avoid accidental damage.


Regular inspections play a key role in maintaining the integrity of ductwork. Over time, even minor dents or punctures can lead to significant air leakage, reducing system efficiency and increasing energy costs. By conducting periodic checks, building managers can spot early signs of wear and tear before they escalate into more severe problems.


Insulation also serves as a dual-purpose measure-providing thermal regulation while offering a layer of protection against physical impacts. Using high-quality insulation materials not only enhances energy efficiency but also helps cushion any blows that might otherwise harm the ducts.


When it comes to electrical connections, safeguarding begins with proper installation practices. Ensuring that all wiring is correctly routed and securely fastened minimizes the chances of physical stress leading to disconnections or shorts. It's equally important to use conduit systems where appropriate; these not only organize cables neatly but also shield them from external forces.


Labeling electrical components clearly makes it easier for maintenance personnel to identify circuits quickly without needing to disturb other parts unnecessarily-a practice that reduces wear over time.


Moreover, environment-specific considerations should not be overlooked. For instance, in regions prone to seismic activity or heavy industrial vibrations, using flexible joints in both ductwork and electrical setups can absorb movement without transferring stress directly onto these systems.


Finally, education cannot be underestimated in this context. Training staff and contractors about the importance of protecting these systems ensures that everyone involved understands their role in preserving infrastructure integrity.


In conclusion, safeguarding ductwork and electrical connections requires a proactive approach combining strategic planning with practical measures like protective installations and regular inspections. By prioritizing these efforts today, we preserve not just our buildings' functionality but also extend their life spans while ensuring safety for all occupants tomorrow.

Steps for Diagnosing Low Refrigerant Issues

In the realm of technology and construction, where precision and reliability are paramount, the role of proper installation in minimizing physical risks cannot be overstated. Whether we speak of intricate electronic components in a high-tech device or large-scale infrastructure elements, ensuring that each component is correctly installed is crucial to safeguarding them from physical damage and guaranteeing their optimal functionality.


Proper installation begins with understanding the specifications and requirements of each component. Every piece of equipment or material comes with its own set of instructions regarding handling, environment compatibility, and assembly. Adhering to these guidelines is essential; neglect can lead to misalignment, stress fractures, or complete failure right from the outset. For example, an improperly mounted circuit board might succumb to vibrations it wasn't originally designed to withstand, leading to micro-cracks that compromise its effectiveness over time.


Moreover, proper installation involves using the right tools and techniques tailored for each specific task. Employing incorrect tools can cause undue stress on components during installation. A simple oversight like overtightening screws can warp delicate parts or create points of weakness that may not manifest immediately but could lead to significant failures down the line. Furthermore, skilled installers bring an invaluable level of expertise; they understand nuances that go beyond written manuals-knowledge gained through experience about how different materials interact under various conditions.


Another critical aspect is environmental consideration during installation. Many components require specific environmental conditions such as temperature control and humidity levels during their integration into larger systems. Ignoring these factors can lead to immediate damage or latent issues that surface only after prolonged exposure to unsuitable conditions.


Additionally, proper installation acts as a preventive measure against accidents that could arise from human error or unforeseen external forces post-installation. Well-secured components are less likely to suffer from impacts or displacements due to accidental knocks or natural events like earthquakes. This foresight in securing installations reduces not only potential physical damage but also mitigates risks associated with downtime and repairs.


Ultimately, investing time and resources in proper installation pays dividends by extending the life span of components and ensuring safety for users who rely on these systems daily. It fosters a culture of diligence where quality control becomes second nature-a mindset essential for industries striving for excellence in both product performance and customer satisfaction.


In conclusion, while it may seem like a straightforward process at first glance, proper installation demands attention to detail at every step-from initial planning through execution-to minimize physical risks effectively. By placing emphasis on meticulous methods and comprehensive understanding throughout this process, we protect valuable components from premature deterioration while building robust frameworks capable of enduring life's unpredictable challenges.

Preventive Measures and Maintenance Tips

In the intricate world of engineering and technology, the integrity of a system's components is paramount to ensuring optimal efficiency and minimizing costs. The physical damage to components can have profound implications on both system performance and financial expenditure, making it a crucial area for consideration in design and maintenance strategies.


Physical damage to components often manifests through wear and tear, environmental exposure, accidental impacts, or improper handling during installation or operation. When such damage occurs, it can lead to a significant decline in system efficiency. For instance, a damaged component may cause mechanical friction or misalignment, resulting in increased energy consumption as the system struggles to maintain its intended output. In electronic systems, physical impairment might lead to inefficient circuitry paths or heat generation issues that compromise performance.


Moreover, the cost implications of physical damage are twofold: direct costs associated with repair or replacement and indirect costs related to downtime and reduced productivity. When a critical component fails due to physical damage, operations may be halted until repairs are made or replacements sourced. This downtime can incur substantial financial losses, particularly in industries where time equates directly to revenue generation. Additionally, frequent breakdowns necessitate more frequent maintenance interventions, which further adds to operational expenses.


Protecting components from physical damage is thus essential for maintaining system efficiency and controlling costs. Effective protection strategies include using robust materials that withstand environmental stressors and implementing design features that minimize impact risk. Protective coatings and housings can shield sensitive parts from external forces while regular inspection protocols help identify potential vulnerabilities before they result in costly failures.


Furthermore, investing in training for personnel who handle these components ensures that they are aware of best practices for installation and maintenance, reducing human error-induced damages. By prioritizing these protective measures within an organization's operational framework, companies can safeguard their systems against inefficiencies caused by physical damage while simultaneously preserving their bottom line.


In conclusion, understanding the impact of physical damage on system efficiency highlights the need for proactive measures aimed at protecting components. The financial stakes are high when considering both immediate repair expenses and long-term loss of productivity due to compromised systems. Therefore, adopting comprehensive protection strategies not only enhances system reliability but also promotes sustainable cost management-a critical objective in today's competitive marketplace.

 

Air pollution from a coking oven
2016 Environmental Performance Index – darker colors indicate lower concentrations of fine particulate matter and nitrogen dioxide, as well as better indoor air quality.
Deaths from air pollution per 100,000 inhabitants (IHME, 2019)

Air pollution is the contamination of air due to the presence of substances called pollutants in the atmosphere that are harmful to the health of humans and other living beings, or cause damage to the climate or to materials.[1] It is also the contamination of the indoor or outdoor environment either by chemical, physical, or biological agents that alters the natural features of the atmosphere.[1] There are many different types of air pollutants, such as gases (including ammonia, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrous oxides, methane and chlorofluorocarbons), particulates (both organic and inorganic) and biological molecules. Air pollution can cause diseases, allergies, and even death to humans; it can also cause harm to other living organisms such as animals and crops, and may damage the natural environment (for example, climate change, ozone depletion or habitat degradation) or built environment (for example, acid rain).[2] Air pollution can be caused by both human activities[3] and natural phenomena.[4]

Air quality is closely related to the Earth's climate and ecosystems globally. Many of the contributors of air pollution are also sources of greenhouse emission i.e., burning of fossil fuel.[1]

Air pollution is a significant risk factor for a number of pollution-related diseases, including respiratory infections, heart disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), stroke, and lung cancer.[5] Growing evidence suggests that air pollution exposure may be associated with reduced IQ scores, impaired cognition,[6] increased risk for psychiatric disorders such as depression[7] and detrimental perinatal health.[8] The human health effects of poor air quality are far reaching, but principally affect the body's respiratory system and the cardiovascular system.[9][10] Individual reactions to air pollutants depend on the type of pollutant a person is exposed to,[11][12] the degree of exposure, and the individual's health status and genetics.[13]

Air pollution is the largest environmental risk factor for disease and premature death[5][14] and the fourth largest risk factor overall for human health.[15] Air pollution causes the premature deaths of around 7 million people worldwide each year,[5] or a global mean loss of life expectancy (LLE) of 2.9 years,[16] and there has been no significant change in the number of deaths caused by all forms of pollution since at least 2015.[14][17][18] Outdoor air pollution attributable to fossil fuel use alone causes ~3.61 million deaths annually,[19] making it one of the top contributors to human death.[5] Anthropogenic ozone causes around 470,000 premature deaths a year and fine particulate (PM2.5) pollution around another 2.1 million.[20] The scope of the air pollution crisis is large: In 2018, WHO estimated that "9 out of 10 people breathe air containing high levels of pollutants."[21] Although the health consequences are extensive, the way the problem is handled is considered largely haphazard[22][21][23] or neglected.[14]

The World Bank has estimated that welfare losses (premature deaths) and productivity losses (lost labour) caused by air pollution cost the world economy $5 trillion per year.[24][25][26] The costs of air pollution are generally an externality to the contemporary economic system and most human activity, although they are sometimes recovered through monitoring, legislation, and regulation.[27][28]

Many different technologies and strategies are available for reducing air pollution.[29] Although a majority of countries have air pollution laws, according to UNEP, 43 percent of countries lack a legal definition of air pollution, 31 percent lack outdoor air quality standards, 49 percent restrict their definition to outdoor pollution only, and just 31 percent have laws for tackling pollution originating from outside their borders.[30] National air quality laws have often been highly effective, notably the 1956 Clean Air Act in Britain and the US Clean Air Act, introduced in 1963.[31][32] Some of these efforts have been successful at the international level, such as the Montreal Protocol,[33] which reduced the release of harmful ozone depleting chemicals, and the 1985 Helsinki Protocol,[34] which reduced sulfur emissions,[35] while others, such as international action on climate change,[36][37][38] have been less successful.

Sources of air pollution

[edit]

There are many different sources of air pollution. Some air pollutants (such as nitrogen oxides) originate mainly from human activities,[39] while some (notably radon gas) come mostly from natural sources.[40] However, many air pollutants (including dust and sulfur dioxide) come from a mixture of natural and human sources.[41]

Anthropogenic (human-made) sources

[edit]
Demolition of the cooling towers of a power station, Athlone, Cape Town, South Africa, 2010
Controlled burning of a field outside of Statesboro, Georgia, US, in preparation for spring planting
Smoking of fish over an open fire in Ghana, 2018
Burning of joss paper in a Chinese temple in Hong Kong
  • Stationary sources include:
    • fossil-fuel power plants and biomass power plants both have smoke stacks (see for example environmental impact of the coal industry)[42]
      • Oil and gas sites that have methane leaks[43][44][45][46]
    • burning of traditional biomass such as wood, crop waste and dung. (In developing and poor countries,[47] traditional biomass burning is the major source of air pollutants.[48][49] It is also the main source of particulate pollution in many developed areas including the UK & New South Wales.[50][51] Its pollutants include PAHs.[52])
    • manufacturing facilities (factories)[53]
      • a 2014 study found that in China equipment-, machinery-, and devices-manufacturing and construction sectors contributed more than 50% of air pollutant emissions.[54][better source needed] This high emission is due to high emission intensity and high emission factors in its industrial structure.[55]
    • construction[56][57]
    • renovation[58]
    • waste incineration (incinerators as well as open and uncontrolled fires of mismanaged waste, making up about a fourth of municipal solid terrestrial waste)[59][60]
    • furnaces and other types of fuel-burning heating devices[61]
  • Mobile sources include motor vehicles, trains (particularly diesel locomotives and DMUs), marine vessels and aircraft[62] as well as rockets and re-entry of components and debris.[63] The air pollution externality of cars enters the air from the exhaust gas and car tires (including microplastics[64]). Road vehicles make a significant amount of all air pollution (typically, for example, around a third to a half of all nitrogen dioxide emissions)[65][66][67] and are a major driver of climate change.[68][69]
  • Agriculture and forest management strategies using controlled burns. Practices like slash-and-burn in forests like the Amazon cause large air pollution with the deforestation.[70] Controlled or prescribed burning is a practice used in forest management, agriculture, prairie restoration, and greenhouse gas reduction.[71] Foresters can use controlled fire as a tool because fire is a natural feature of both forest and grassland ecology.[72][73] Controlled burning encourages the sprouting of some desirable forest trees, resulting in a forest renewal.[74]

There are also sources from processes other than combustion:

  • Fumes from paint, hair spray, varnish, aerosol sprays and other solvents. These can be substantial; emissions from these sources was estimated to account for almost half of pollution from volatile organic compounds in the Los Angeles basin in the 2010s.[75]
  • Waste deposition in landfills produces methane[76] and open burning of waste releases harmful substances.[77]
  • Nuclear weapons, toxic gases, germ warfare, and rocketry are examples of military resources.[78]
  • Agricultural emissions and emissions from meat production or livestock contribute substantially to air pollution[79][80]
    • Fertilized farmland may be a major source of nitrogen oxides.[81]
Mean acidifying emissions (air pollution) of different foods per 100g of protein[82]
Food Types Acidifying Emissions (g SO2eq per 100g protein)
Beef
 
343.6
Cheese
 
165.5
Pork
 
142.7
Lamb and mutton
 
139.0
Farmed crustaceans
 
133.1
Poultry
 
102.4
Farmed fish
 
65.9
Eggs
 
53.7
Groundnuts
 
22.6
Peas
 
8.5
Tofu
 
6.7

Natural sources

[edit]
Dust storm approaching Stratford, Texas, in 1935
  • Dust from natural sources, usually large areas of land with little or no vegetation.
  • Methane, emitted by the digestion of food by animals, for example cattle.
  • Radon gas from radioactive decay within the Earth's crust. Radon is a colorless, odorless, naturally occurring, radioactive noble gas that is formed from the decay of radium. It is considered to be a health hazard. Radon gas from natural sources can accumulate in buildings, especially in confined areas such as the basement and it is the second most frequent cause of lung cancer, after cigarette smoking.
  • Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires. During periods of active wildfires, smoke from uncontrolled biomass combustion can make up almost 75% of all air pollution by concentration.[83]
  • Vegetation, in some regions, emits environmentally significant amounts of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) on warmer days. These VOCs react with primary anthropogenic pollutants – specifically, NOx, SO2, and anthropogenic organic carbon compounds – to produce a seasonal haze of secondary pollutants.[84] Black gum, poplar, oak and willow are some examples of vegetation that can produce abundant VOCs. The VOC production from these species result in ozone levels up to eight times higher than the low-impact tree species.[85]
  • Volcanic activity, which produces sulfur, chlorine, and ash particulates.[86]

Emission factors

[edit]
Beijing air in 2005 after rain (left) and a smoggy day (right)

Air pollutant emission factors are reported representative values that aim to link the quantity of a pollutant released into the ambient air to an activity connected with that pollutant's release.[2][87][88][89] The weight of the pollutant divided by a unit weight, volume, distance, or time of the activity generating the pollutant is how these factors are commonly stated (e.g., kilograms of particulate emitted per tonne of coal burned). These criteria make estimating emissions from diverse sources of pollution easier. Most of the time, these components are just averages of all available data of acceptable quality, and they are thought to be typical of long-term averages.

The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants identified pesticides and other persistent organic pollutants of concern. These include dioxins and furans which are unintentionally created by combustion of organics, like open burning of plastics, and are endocrine disruptors and mutagens.

E-waste processing in Agbogbloshie, Ghana, using open-burning of electronics to access valuable metals like copper. Open burning of plastics is common in many parts of the world without the capacity for processing. Especially without proper protections, heavy metals and other contaminates can seep into the soil, and create water pollution and air pollution.

The United States Environmental Protection Agency has published a compilation of air pollutant emission factors for a wide range of industrial sources.[90] The United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, and many other countries have published similar compilations, as well as the European Environment Agency.[91][92][93][94]

Pollutants

[edit]
Schematic drawing, causes and effects of air pollution: (1) greenhouse effect, (2) particulate contamination, (3) increased UV radiation, (4) acid rain, (5) increased ground-level ozone concentration, (6) increased levels of nitrogen oxides

An air pollutant is a material in the air that can have many effects on humans and the ecosystem.[95] The substance can be solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases, and often takes the form of an aerosol (solid particles or liquid droplets dispersed and carried by a gas).[96] A pollutant can be of natural origin or man-made. Pollutants are classified as primary or secondary. Primary pollutants are usually produced by processes such as ash from a volcanic eruption.

Other examples include carbon monoxide gas from motor vehicle exhausts or sulfur dioxide released from factories. Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly. Rather, they form in the air when primary pollutants react or interact. Ground level ozone is a prominent example of a secondary pollutant. Some pollutants may be both primary and secondary: they are both emitted directly and formed from other primary pollutants.

Primary pollutants

[edit]

Pollutants emitted into the atmosphere by human activity include:

  • Ammonia: Emitted mainly by agricultural waste. Ammonia is a compound with the formula NH3. It is normally encountered as a gas with a characteristic pungent odor. Ammonia contributes significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to foodstuffs and fertilizers. Ammonia, either directly or indirectly, is also a building block for the synthesis of many pharmaceuticals. Although in wide use, ammonia is both caustic and hazardous.[97] In the atmosphere, ammonia reacts with oxides of nitrogen and sulfur to form secondary particles.[98]
  • Carbon dioxide (CO2): Carbon dioxide is a natural component of the atmosphere, essential for plant life and given off by the human respiratory system.[99] It is potentially lethal at very high concentrations (typically 100 times "normal" atmospheric levels).[100][101] Although the World Health Organization recognizes CO2 as a climate pollutant, it does not include the gas in its Air Quality Guidelines or set recommended targets for it.[102] Because of its role as a greenhouse gas, CO2 has been described as "the worst climate pollutant".[103] Statements such as this refer to its long-term atmospheric effects rather than shorter-term effects on such things as human health, food crops, and buildings. This question of terminology has practical consequences, for example, in determining whether the U.S. Clean Air Act (which is designed to improve air quality) is deemed to regulate CO2 emissions.[104] That issue was resolved in the United States by the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022, which specifically amended the Clean Air Act "to define the carbon dioxide produced by the burning of fossil fuels as an 'air pollutant.'"[105] CO2 currently forms about 410 parts per million (ppm) of Earth's atmosphere, compared to about 280 ppm in pre-industrial times,[106] and billions of metric tons of CO2 are emitted annually by burning of fossil fuels.[107] CO2 increase in Earth's atmosphere has been accelerating.[108] CO2 is an asphyxiant gas and not classified as toxic or harmful in general.[109] Workplace exposure limits exist in places like UK (5,000 ppm for long-term exposure and 15,000 ppm for short-term exposure).[101] Natural disasters like the limnic eruption at Lake Nyos can result in a sudden release of huge amount of CO2 as well.[110]
  • Carbon monoxide (CO): CO is a colorless, odorless, toxic gas.[111] It is a product of combustion of fuel such as natural gas, coal or wood. Vehicular exhaust contributes to the majority of carbon monoxide let into the atmosphere. It creates a smog type formation in the air that has been linked to many lung diseases and disruptions to the natural environment and animals.
  • Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): Emitted from goods that are now prohibited from use; harmful to the ozone layer. These are gases emitted by air conditioners, freezers, aerosol sprays, and other similar devices. CFCs reach the stratosphere after being released into the atmosphere.[112] They interact with other gases here, causing harm to the ozone layer. UV rays are able to reach the Earth's surface as a result of this. This can result in skin cancer, eye problems, and even plant damage.[113]
  • Nitrogen oxides (NOx): Nitrogen oxides, particularly nitrogen dioxide, are expelled from high temperature combustion, and are also produced during thunderstorms by electric discharge. They can be seen as a brown haze dome above or a plume downwind of cities. Nitrogen dioxide is a chemical compound with the formula NO2. It is one of several nitrogen oxides. One of the most prominent air pollutants, this reddish-brown toxic gas has a characteristic sharp, biting odor.
  • Odors: Such as from garbage, sewage, and industrial processes.
  • Particulate matter/particles (PM), also known as particulates, atmospheric particulate matter (APM), or fine particles, are microscopic solid or liquid particles suspended in a gas.[114] Aerosol is a mixture of particles and gas. Volcanoes, dust storms, forest and grassland fires, living plants, and sea spray are all sources of particles. Aerosols are produced by human activities such as the combustion of fossil fuels in automobiles, power plants, and numerous industrial processes.[115] Averaged worldwide, anthropogenic aerosols – those made by human activities – currently account for approximately 10% of the atmosphere. Increased levels of fine particles in the air are linked to health hazards such as heart disease,[116] altered lung function and lung cancer. Particulates are related to respiratory infections and can be particularly harmful to those with conditions like asthma.[117]
  • Persistent organic pollutants, which can attach to particulates. Persistent organic pollutants are organic compounds that are resistant to environmental degradation due to chemical, biological, or photolytic processes (POPs). As a result, they've been discovered to survive in the environment, be capable of long-range transmission, bioaccumulate in human and animal tissue, biomagnify in food chains, and pose a major threat to human health and the ecosystem.[118]
  • Persistent free radicals connected to airborne fine particles are linked to cardiopulmonary disease.[119][120]
  • Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs): a group of aromatic compounds formed from the incomplete combustion of organic compounds including coal and oil and tobacco.[121]
  • Radioactive pollutants: Produced by nuclear explosions, nuclear events, war explosives, and natural processes such as the radioactive decay of radon.
  • Sulfur oxides (SOx): particularly sulfur dioxide, a chemical compound with the formula SO2. SO2 is produced by volcanoes and in various industrial processes. Coal and petroleum often contain sulfur compounds, and their combustion generates sulfur dioxide. Further oxidation of SO2, usually in the presence of a catalyst such as NO2, forms H2SO4, and thus acid rain is formed. This is one of the causes for concern over the environmental impact of the use of these fuels as power sources.
  • Toxic metals, such as lead and mercury, especially their compounds.
  • Volatile organic compounds (VOC): VOCs are both indoor and outdoor air pollutants.[122] They are categorized as either methane (CH4) or non-methane (NMVOCs). Methane is an extremely efficient greenhouse gas which contributes to enhanced global warming. Other hydrocarbon VOCs are also significant greenhouse gases because of their role in creating ozone and prolonging the life of methane in the atmosphere. This effect varies depending on local air quality. The aromatic NMVOCs benzene, toluene and xylene are suspected carcinogens and may lead to leukemia with prolonged exposure. 1,3-butadiene is another dangerous compound often associated with industrial use.

Secondary pollutants

[edit]

Secondary pollutants include:

  • Ground level ozone (O3): Ozone is created when NOx and VOCs mix. It is a significant part of the troposphere.[123] It's also an important part of the ozone layer, which can be found in different sections of the stratosphere. Photochemical and chemical reactions involving it fuel many of the chemical activities that occur in the atmosphere during the day and night. It is a pollutant and a component of smog that is produced in large quantities as a result of human activities (mostly the combustion of fossil fuels).[124] O3 is largely produced by chemical reactions involving NOx gases (nitrogen oxides, especially from combustion) and volatile organic compounds in the presence of sunlight. Due to the influence of temperature and sunlight on this reaction, high ozone levels are most common on hot summer afternoons.[125]
  • Peroxyacetyl nitrate (C2H3NO5): similarly formed from NOx and VOCs.
  • Photochemical smog: particles are formed from gaseous primary contaminants and chemicals.[126] Smog is a type of pollution that occurs in the atmosphere. Smog is caused by a huge volume of coal being burned in a certain region, resulting in a mixture of smoke and sulfur dioxide.[127] Modern smog is usually caused by automotive and industrial emissions, which are acted on in the atmosphere by UV light from the sun to produce secondary pollutants, which then combine with the primary emissions to generate photochemical smog.

Other pollutants

[edit]

There are many other chemicals classed as hazardous air pollutants. Some of these are regulated in the USA under the Clean Air Act and in Europe under numerous directives (including the Air "Framework" Directive, 96/62/EC, on ambient air quality assessment and management, Directive 98/24/EC, on risks related to chemical agents at work, and Directive 2004/107/EC covering heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in ambient air).[128][129]

To display all pages, subcategories and images click on the "â–º":
Hazardous air pollutants (4 C, 68 P)

Exposure

[edit]

The risk of air pollution is determined by the pollutant's hazard and the amount of exposure to that pollutant. Air pollution exposure can be measured for a person, a group, such as a neighborhood or a country's children, or an entire population. For example, one would want to determine a geographic area's exposure to a dangerous air pollution, taking into account the various microenvironments and age groups. This can be calculated[130] as an inhalation exposure. This would account for daily exposure in various settings, e.g. different indoor micro-environments and outdoor locations. The exposure needs to include different ages and other demographic groups, especially infants, children, pregnant women, and other sensitive subpopulations.[130]

For each specific time that the subgroup is in the setting and engaged in particular activities, the exposure to an air pollutant must integrate the concentrations of the air pollutant with regard to the time spent in each setting and the respective inhalation rates for each subgroup, playing, cooking, reading, working, spending time in traffic, etc. A little child's inhaling rate, for example, will be lower than that of an adult. A young person engaging in strenuous exercise will have a faster rate of breathing than a child engaged in sedentary activity. The daily exposure must therefore include the amount of time spent in each micro-environmental setting as well as the kind of activities performed there. The air pollutant concentration in each microactivity/microenvironmental setting is summed to indicate the exposure.[130]

For some pollutants such as black carbon, traffic related exposures may dominate total exposure despite short exposure times since high concentrations coincide with proximity to major roads or participation in (motorized) traffic.[131] A large portion of total daily exposure occurs as short peaks of high concentrations, but it remains unclear how to define peaks and determine their frequency and health impact.[132]

In 2021, the WHO halved its recommended guideline limit for tiny particles from burning fossil fuels. The new limit for nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is 75% lower.[133] Growing evidence that air pollution—even when experienced at very low levels—hurts human health, led the WHO to revise its guideline (from 10 μg/m3 to 5 μg/m3) for what it considers a safe level of exposure of particulate pollution, bringing most of the world—97.3 percent of the global population—into the unsafe zone.[134]

Indoor air quality

[edit]
The share of total deaths from indoor air pollution, 2017
Air quality monitoring, New Delhi, India

A lack of ventilation indoors concentrates air pollution where people often spend the majority of their time. Indoor air pollution can pose a significant health risk. According to EPA reports, the concentrations of many air pollutants can be two to five times higher in indoor air than in outdoor air. Indoor air pollutants can be up to 100 times higher in some cases than they are inside. People can spend up to 90% of their time indoors, according to the American Lung Association; the US Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) 2012; and the US Environmental Protection Agency 2012a.[135]

Indoor contaminants that can cause pollution include asbestos, biologic agents, building materials, radon, tobacco smoke, and wood stoves, gas ranges, or other heating systems.[135]

Radon (Rn) gas, a carcinogen, is exuded from the Earth in certain locations and trapped inside houses. Building materials including carpeting and plywood emit formaldehyde (H-CHO) gas. Paint and solvents give off volatile organic compounds (VOCs) as they dry. Lead paint can degenerate into dust and be inhaled.[136][137]

Intentional air pollution is introduced with the use of air fresheners, incense, and other scented items. Controlled wood fires in cook stoves and fireplaces can add significant amounts of harmful smoke particulates into the air, inside and out.[136][137] Indoor pollution fatalities may be caused by using pesticides and other chemical sprays indoors without proper ventilation. Also the kitchen in a modern produce harmful particles and gases, with equipment like toasters being one of the worst sources.[138]

Carbon monoxide poisoning and fatalities are often caused by faulty vents and chimneys, or by the burning of charcoal indoors or in a confined space, such as a tent.[139] Chronic carbon monoxide poisoning can result even from poorly-adjusted pilot lights. Traps are built into all domestic plumbing to keep sewer gas and hydrogen sulfide, out of interiors. Clothing emits tetrachloroethylene, or other dry cleaning fluids, for days after dry cleaning.

Though its use has now been banned in many countries, the extensive use of asbestos in industrial and domestic environments in the past has left a potentially very dangerous material in many localities. Asbestosis is a chronic inflammatory medical condition affecting the tissue of the lungs. It occurs after long-term, heavy exposure to asbestos from asbestos-containing materials in structures. Those with asbestosis have severe dyspnea (shortness of breath) and are at an increased risk regarding several different types of lung cancer. As clear explanations are not always stressed in non-technical literature, care should be taken to distinguish between several forms of relevant diseases. According to the World Health Organization,[140] these may be defined as asbestosis, lung cancer, and peritoneal mesothelioma (generally a very rare form of cancer, when more widespread it is almost always associated with prolonged exposure to asbestos).

Biological sources of air pollution are also found indoors, as gases and airborne particulates. Pets produce dander, people produce dust from minute skin flakes and decomposed hair, dust mites in bedding, carpeting and furniture produce enzymes and micrometre-sized fecal droppings, inhabitants emit methane, mold forms on walls and generates mycotoxins and spores, air conditioning systems can incubate Legionnaires' disease and mold, and houseplants, soil and surrounding gardens can produce pollen, dust, and mold. Indoors, the lack of air circulation allows these airborne pollutants to accumulate more than they would otherwise occur in nature.

Health effects

[edit]

Air pollution has both acute and chronic effects on human health, affecting a number of different systems and organs but principally affect the body's respiratory system and the cardiovascular system. Afflictions include minor to chronic upper respiratory irritation such as difficulty in breathing, wheezing, coughing, asthma[141] and heart disease, lung cancer, stroke, acute respiratory infections in children and chronic bronchitis in adults, aggravating pre-existing heart and lung disease, or asthmatic attacks.

Short and long term exposures have been linked with premature mortality and reduced life expectancy[142] and can result in increased medication use, increased doctor or emergency department visits, more hospital admissions and premature death.[130][better source needed] Diseases that develop from persistent exposure to air pollution are environmental health diseases, which develop when a health environment is not maintained.[143]

Even at levels lower than those considered safe by United States regulators, exposure to three components of air pollution, fine particulate matter, nitrogen dioxide and ozone, correlates with cardiac and respiratory illness.[144] Individual reactions to air pollutants depend on the type of pollutant a person is exposed to, the degree of exposure, and the individual's health status and genetics.[130] The most common sources of air pollution include particulates and ozone (often from burning fossil fuels),[145] nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide. Children aged less than five years who live in developing countries are the most vulnerable population to death attributable to indoor and outdoor air pollution.[146]

Under the Clean Air Act, U.S. EPA sets limits on certain air pollutants, including setting limits on how much can be in the air anywhere in the United States.[147] Mixed exposure to both carbon black and ozone could result in significantly greater health affects.[148]

Mortality

[edit]
Estimates of the death toll from air pollution vary across publications.
Deaths caused by accidents and air pollution from fossil fuel use in power plants exceed those caused by production of renewable energy.[149]
Estimated annual number of deaths attributed to air pollution in 2019. This includes three categories of air pollution: indoor household, outdoor particulate matter and ozone.

Estimates of deaths toll due to air pollution vary.[150] In 2014 the World Health Organization estimated that every year air pollution causes the premature death of 7 million people worldwide,[5] 1 in 8 deaths worldwide.[151] A study published in 2019 indicated that in 2015 the number may be closer to 8.8 million, with 5.5 million of these premature deaths due to air pollution from anthropogenic sources.[152][153] A 2022 review concluded that in 2019 air pollution was responsible for approximately 9 million premature deaths. It concluded that since 2015 little real progress against pollution has been made.[14][154] Causes of deaths include strokes, heart disease, COPD, lung cancer, and lung infections.[5] Children are particularly at risk.[155]

In 2021, the WHO reported that outdoor air pollution was estimated to cause 4.2 million premature deaths worldwide in 2019.[156]

The global mean loss of life expectancy (LLE; similar to YPLL) from air pollution in 2015 was 2.9 years, substantially more than, for example, 0.3 years from all forms of direct violence.[16] Communities with persons that live beyond 85 years have low ambient air pollution, suggesting a link between air pollution levels and longevity.[157]

Primary mechanisms

[edit]

The WHO estimates that in 2016, ~58% of outdoor air pollution-related premature deaths were due to ischaemic heart disease and stroke.[156] The mechanisms linking air pollution to increased cardiovascular mortality are uncertain, but probably include pulmonary and systemic inflammation.[158]

By region

[edit]

India and China have the highest death rate due to air pollution.[159][160] India also has more deaths from asthma than any other nation according to the World Health Organization. In 2019, 1.6 million deaths in India were caused by air pollution.[161] In 2013, air pollution was estimated to kill 500,000 people in China each year.[162] In 2012, 2.48% of China's total air pollution emissions were caused by exports due to US demand, causing an additional 27,963 deaths across 30 provinces.[163]

Annual premature European deaths caused by air pollution are estimated at 430,000[164] to 800,000.[153] An important cause of these deaths is nitrogen dioxide and other nitrogen oxides (NOx) emitted by road vehicles.[164] Across the European Union, air pollution is estimated to reduce life expectancy by almost nine months.[165] In a 2015 consultation document the UK government disclosed that nitrogen dioxide is responsible for 23,500 premature UK deaths per annum.[166] There is a positive correlation between pneumonia-related deaths and air pollution from motor vehicle emissions in England.[167]

Eliminating energy-related fossil fuel emissions in the United States would prevent 46,900–59,400 premature deaths each year and provide $537–$678 billion in benefits from avoided PM2.5-related illness and death.[168]

A study published in 2023 in Science focused on sulfur dioxide emissions by coal power plants (coal PM2.5) and concluded that "exposure to coal PM2.5 was associated with 2.1 times greater mortality risk than exposure to PM2.5 from all sources."[169] From 1999 to 2020, a total of 460,000 deaths in the US were attributed to coal PM2.5.[169]

Air pollution deaths by nation due to fossil fuels

Major causes

[edit]
A comparison of footprint-based and transboundary pollution-based relationships among G20 nations for the number of PM2.5-related premature deaths[170]

The largest cause of air pollution is fossil fuel combustion[171] – mostly the production and use of cars, electricity production, and heating.[172] There are estimated 4.5 million annual premature deaths worldwide due to pollutants released by high-emission power stations and vehicle exhausts.[173]

Diesel exhaust (DE) is a major contributor to combustion-derived particulate matter air pollution. In several human experimental studies, using a well-validated exposure chamber setup, DE has been linked to acute vascular dysfunction and increased thrombus formation.[174][175]

A study concluded that PM2.5 air pollution induced by the contemporary free trade and consumption by the 19 G20 nations causes two million premature deaths annually, suggesting that the average lifetime consumption of about ~28 people in these countries causes at least one premature death (average age ~67) while developing countries "cannot be expected" to implement or be able to implement countermeasures without external support or internationally coordinated efforts.[176][170]

Guidelines

[edit]

The US EPA has estimated that limiting ground-level ozone concentration to 65 parts per billion (ppb), would avert 1,700 to 5,100 premature deaths nationwide in 2020 compared with the 75 ppb standard. The agency projected the more protective standard would also prevent an additional 26,000 cases of aggravated asthma, and more than a million cases of missed work or school.[177][178] Following this assessment, the EPA acted to protect public health by lowering the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for ground-level ozone to 70 ppb.[179]

A 2008 economic study of the health impacts and associated costs of air pollution in the Los Angeles Basin and San Joaquin Valley of Southern California shows that more than 3,800 people die prematurely (approximately 14 years earlier than normal) each year because air pollution levels violate federal standards. The number of annual premature deaths is considerably higher than the fatalities related to auto collisions in the same area, which average fewer than 2,000 per year.[180][181][182] A 2021 study found that outdoor air pollution is associated with substantially increased mortality "even at low pollution levels below the current European and North American standards and WHO guideline values" shortly before the WHO adjusted its guidelines.[183][184]

Cardiovascular disease

[edit]

According to the Global Burden of Disease Study, air pollution is responsible for 19% of all cardiovascular deaths.[185][186] There is strong evidence linking both short- and long-term exposure to air pollution with cardiovascular disease mortality and morbidity, stroke, blood pressure, and ischemic heart diseases (IHD).[186]

Air pollution is a leading risk factor for stroke, particularly in developing countries where pollutant levels are highest.[187] A systematic analysis of 17 different risk factors in 188 countries found air pollution is associated with nearly one in three strokes (29%) worldwide (33.7% of strokes in developing countries versus 10.2% in developed countries).[187][188] In women, air pollution is not associated with hemorrhagic but with ischemic stroke.[189] Air pollution was found to be associated with increased incidence and mortality from coronary stroke.[190] Associations are believed to be causal and effects may be mediated by vasoconstriction, low-grade inflammation and atherosclerosis.[191] Other mechanisms such as autonomic nervous system imbalance have also been suggested.[192][193]

Lung disease

[edit]

Research has demonstrated increased risk of developing asthma[194] and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)[195] from increased exposure to traffic-related air pollution. Air pollution has been associated with increased hospitalization and mortality from asthma and COPD.[196][197]

COPD comprises a spectrum of clinical disorders that include emphysema, bronchiectasis, and chronic bronchitis.[198] COPD risk factors are both genetic and environmental. Elevated particle pollution contributes to the exacerbation of this disease and likely its pathogenesis.[199]

The risk of lung disease from air pollution is greatest for infants and young children, whose normal breathing is faster than that of older children and adults; the elderly; those who work outside or spend a lot of time outside; and those who have heart or lung disease comorbidities.[200]

A study conducted in 1960–1961 in the wake of the Great Smog of 1952 compared 293 London residents with 477 residents of Gloucester, Peterborough, and Norwich, three towns with low reported death rates from chronic bronchitis. All subjects were male postal truck drivers aged 40 to 59. Compared to the subjects from the outlying towns, the London subjects exhibited more severe respiratory symptoms (including cough, phlegm, and dyspnea), reduced lung function (FEV1 and peak flow rate), and increased sputum production and purulence. The differences were more pronounced for subjects aged 50 to 59. The study controlled for age and smoking habits, so concluded that air pollution was the most likely cause of the observed differences.[201] More studies have shown that air pollution exposure from traffic reduces lung function development in children[202] and lung function may be compromised by air pollution even at low concentrations.[203]

It is believed that, much like cystic fibrosis, serious health hazards become more apparent when living in a more urban environment. Studies have shown that in urban areas people experience mucus hypersecretion, lower levels of lung function, and more self-diagnosis of chronic bronchitis and emphysema.[204]

Cancer

[edit]
Dark factory clouds obscure the Clark Avenue Bridge in Cleveland, Ohio, July 1973.
Dark factory-emitted clouds obscuring the Clark Avenue Bridge in Cleveland, Ohio in July 1973

Around 300,000 lung cancer deaths were attributed globally in 2019 to exposure to fine particulate matter, PM2.5, suspended in the air.[205] PM2.5 exposure, such as from car exhausts, activates dormant mutations in lung cells, causing them to become cancerous.[206][205] Unprotected exposure to PM2.5 air pollution can be equivalent to smoking multiple cigarettes per day,[207][dead link] potentially increasing the risk of cancer, which is mainly the result of environmental factors.[208]

Long-term exposure to PM2.5 (fine particulates) increases the overall risk of non-accidental mortality by 6% per 10 μg/m3 increase. Exposure to PM2.5 is also associated with an increased risk of mortality from lung cancer (range: 15–21% per 10 μg/m3 increase) and total cardiovascular mortality (range: 12–14% per 10 μg/m3 increase).[209]

The review further noted that living close to busy traffic appears to be associated with elevated risks of these three outcomes – increase in lung cancer deaths, cardiovascular deaths, and overall non-accidental deaths. The reviewers also found suggestive evidence that exposure to PM2.5 is positively associated with mortality from coronary heart diseases and exposure to SO2 increases mortality from lung cancer, but the data was insufficient to provide solid conclusions.[209] Another investigation showed that higher activity level increases deposition fraction of aerosol particles in human lung and recommended avoiding heavy activities like running in outdoor space at polluted areas.[210]

In 2011, a large Danish epidemiological study found an increased risk of lung cancer for people who lived in areas with high nitrogen oxide concentrations.[211] Another Danish study, likewise noted evidence of possible associations between air pollution and other forms of cancer, including cervical cancer and brain cancer.[212]

Kidney disease

[edit]

A study of 163,197 Taiwanese residents over the period of 2001–2016 estimated that every 5 μg/m3 decrease (from an approximate peak of 30μg/m3) in the ambient concentration of PM2.5 was associated with a 25% reduced risk of chronic kidney disease development.[213] According to a cohort study involving 10,997 atherosclerosis patients, higher PM 2.5 exposure is associated with increased albuminuria.[214]

Fertility

[edit]

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)

[edit]

An increase in NO2 is significantly associated with a lower live birth rate in women undergoing IVF treatment.[215] In the general population, there is a significant increase in miscarriage rate in women exposed to NO2 compared to those not exposed.[215]

Carbon monoxide (CO)

[edit]

CO exposure is significantly associated with stillbirth in the second and third trimester.[215]

Standard line-angle structure of benzo-a-pyrene (BaP)

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

[edit]

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) have been associated with reduced fertility. Benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) is a well-known PAH and carcinogen which is often found in exhaust fumes and cigarette smoke.[216] PAHs have been reported to administer their toxic effects through oxidative stress by increasing the production of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) which can result in inflammation and cell death. More long-term exposure to PAHs can result in DNA damage and reduced repair.[217]

Exposure to BaP has been reported to reduce sperm motility and increasing the exposure worsens this effect. Research has demonstrated that more BaPs were found in men with reported fertility issues compared to men without.[218]

Studies have shown that BaPs can affect folliculogenesis and ovarian development by reducing the number of ovarian germ cells via triggering cell death pathways and inducing inflammation which can lead to ovarian damage.[219]

Particulate matter

[edit]

Particulate matter (PM) refers to the collection of solids and liquids suspended in the air. These can be harmful to humans, and more research has shown that these effects may be more extensive than first thought; particularly on male fertility. PM can be different sizes, such as PM2.5 which are tiny particles of 2.5 microns in width or smaller, compared with PM10 which are classified as 10 microns in diameter or less.

A study in California found that increased exposure to PM2.5 led to decreased sperm motility and increased abnormal morphology. Similarly, in Poland exposure to PM2.5 and PM10 led to an increase in the percentage of cells with immature chromatin (DNA that has not fully developed or has developed abnormally).[220]

In Turkey, a study examined the fertility of men who work as toll collectors and are therefore exposed to high levels of traffic pollutants daily. Traffic pollution often has high levels of PM10 alongside carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides.[220] There were significant differences in sperm count and motility in this study group compared to a control group with limited air pollution exposure.

In women, while overall effects on fertility do not appear significant there is an association between increased exposure to PM10 and early miscarriage. Exposure to smaller particulate matter, PM2.5, appears to have an effect on conception rates in women undergoing IVF but does not affect live birth rates.[215]

Ozone structure showing three oxygen atoms

Ground-level ozone pollution

[edit]

Ground-level ozone (O3), when in high concentrations, is regarded as an air pollutant and is often found in smog in industrial areas.

There is limited research about the effect that ozone pollution has on fertility.[215] At present, there is no evidence to suggest that ozone exposure poses a deleterious effect on spontaneous fertility in either females or males. However, there have been studies which suggest that high levels of ozone pollution, often a problem in the summer months, exert an effect on in vitro fertilisation (IVF) outcomes. Within an IVF population, NOx and ozone pollutants were linked with reduced rates of live birth.[215]

While most research on this topic is focused on the direct human exposure of air pollution, other studies have analysed the impact of air pollution on gametes and embryos within IVF laboratories. Multiple studies have reported a marked improvement in embryo quality, implantation and pregnancy rates after IVF laboratories have implemented air filters in a concerted effort to reduce levels of air pollution.[221] Therefore, ozone pollution is considered to have a negative impact on the success of assisted reproductive technologies (ART) when occurring at high levels.

Ozone is thought to act in a biphasic manner where a positive effect on live birth is observed when ozone exposure is limited to before IVF embryo implantation. Conversely, a negative effect is demonstrated upon exposure to ozone after embryo implantation. However, after adjusting for NO2, the association between O3 and IVF live birth rate was no longer significant.[222][223]

In terms of male fertility, ozone is reported to cause a significant decrease in the concentration and count of sperm in semen after exposure.[224] Similarly, sperm vitality, the proportion of live spermatozoa in a sample, was demonstrated to be diminished as a result of exposure to air pollution.[223] However, findings on the effect of ozone exposure on male fertility are somewhat discordant, highlighting the need for further research.[223]

Children

[edit]

Children and infants are among the most vulnerable to air pollution. Polluted air leads to the poisoning of millions of children under the age of 15, resulting in the death of some 600,000 children annually (543,000 under 5 years of age and 52,000 aged 5-15 years).[225] Children in low or middle income countries are exposed to higher levels of fine particulate matter than those in high income countries.[225]

Health effects of air pollution on children include asthma, pneumonia and lower respiratory tract infections and low birth weight.[226] A study in Europe found that exposure to ultrafine particles can increase blood pressure in children.[227]

Prenatal exposure

[edit]

Prenatal exposure to polluted air has been linked to a variety of neurodevelopmental disorders in children. For example, exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) was associated with reduced IQ scores and symptoms of anxiety and depression.[228] They can also lead to detrimental perinatal health outcomes that are often fatal in developing countries.[8] A 2014 study found that PAHs might play a role in the development of childhood attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).[229]

Researchers have found a correlation between air pollution and risk of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) diagnosis, although definitive causality has not yet been established. In Los Angeles, children living in areas with high levels of traffic-related air pollution were more likely to be diagnosed with autism between three–five years of age.[230] A cohort study in Southern California linked in-utero exposure to near-roadway air pollution to an increased risk of ASD diagnosis[231] and a study in Sweden concluded that exposure to PM2.5 during pregnancy was associated with ASD.[232] A Danish study linked exposure to air pollution during infancy, but not during pregnancy, to an increased risk of ASD diagnosis.[233]

The connection between air pollution and neurodevelopmental disorders in children is thought to be related to epigenetic dysregulation of the primordial germ cells, embryo, and fetus during a critical period. Some PAHs are considered endocrine disruptors and are lipid soluble. When they build up in adipose tissue they can be transferred across the placenta can exert a genotoxic effect, cauding DNA damange and mutations.[234] Air pollution has been associated with the prevalence of preterm births.[235]

Infants

[edit]

Ambient levels of air pollution have been associated with preterm birth and low birth weight. A 2014 WHO worldwide survey on maternal and perinatal health found a statistically significant association between low birth weights (LBW) and increased levels of exposure to PM2.5. Women in regions with greater than average PM2.5 levels had statistically significant higher odds of pregnancy resulting in a low-birth weight infant even when adjusted for country-related variables.[236] The effect is thought to be from stimulating inflammation and increasing oxidative stress.

A study found that in 2010 exposure to PM2.5 was strongly associated with 18% of preterm births globally, which was approximately 2.7 million premature births. The countries with the highest air pollution associated preterm births were in South and East Asia, the Middle East, North Africa, and West sub-Saharan Africa.[237] In 2019, ambient particulate matter pollution in Africa resulted in at least 383,000 early deaths, according to new estimates of the cost of air pollution in the continent. This increased from 3.6% in 1990 to around 7.4% of all premature deaths in the area.[238][239][240]

The source of PM2.5 differs greatly by region. In South and East Asia, pregnant women are frequently exposed to indoor air pollution because of wood and other biomass fuels being used for cooking, which are responsible for more than 80% of regional pollution. In the Middle East, North Africa and West sub-Saharan Africa, fine PM comes from natural sources, such as dust storms.[237] The United States had an estimated 50,000 preterm births associated with exposure to PM2.5 in 2010.[237]

A study between 1988 and 1991 found a correlation between sulfur dioxide (SO2) and total suspended particulates (TSP) and preterm births and low birth weights in Beijing. A group of 74,671 pregnant women, in four separate regions of Beijing, were monitored from early pregnancy to delivery along with daily air pollution levels of SO2 and TSP (along with other particulates). The estimated reduction in birth weight was 7.3 g for every 100 μg/m3 increase in SO2 and 6.9 g for each 100 μg/m3 increase in TSP. These associations were statistically significant in both summer and winter, although summer was greater. The proportion of low birth weight attributable to air pollution, was 13%. This is the largest attributable risk ever reported for the known risk factors of low birth weight.[241] Coal stoves, which are in 97% of homes, are a major source of air pollution in this area.

Brauer et al. studied the relationship between air pollution and proximity to a highway with pregnancy outcomes in a Vancouver cohort of pregnant women using addresses to estimate exposure during pregnancy. Exposure to NO, NO2, CO, PM10 and PM2.5 were associated with infants born small for gestational age (SGA). Women living less than 50 meters away from an expressway or highway were 26% more likely to give birth to a SGA infant.[242]

Central nervous system

[edit]

Data is accumulating that air pollution exposure also affects the central nervous system.[243]

Air pollution increases the risk of dementia in people over 50 years old.[244] Indoor air pollution exposure during childhood may negatively affect cognitive function and neurodevelopment.[245][246] Prenatal exposure may also affect neurodevelopment.[247][248] Studies show that air pollution is associated with a variety of developmental disabilities, oxidative stress, and neuro-inflammation and that it may contribute to Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease.[246]

Researchers found that early exposure to air pollution causes the same changes in the brain as autism and schizophrenia in mice. It also showed that air pollution also affected short-term memory, learning ability, and impulsivity. In this study, air pollution had a larger negative impact on male mice than on females.[249][250] Lead researcher on the study, Deborah Cory-Slechta, said that:[251]

When we looked closely at the ventricles, we could see that the white matter that normally surrounds them hadn't fully developed. It appears that inflammation had damaged those brain cells and prevented that region of the brain from developing, and the ventricles simply expanded to fill the space. Our findings add to the growing body of evidence that air pollution may play a role in autism, as well as in other neurodevelopmental disorders.

Exposure to fine particulate matter can increase levels of cytokines - neurotransmitters produced in response to infection and inflammation that are also associated with depression and suicide. Pollution has been associated with inflammation of the brain, which may disrupt mood regulation. Heightened PM2.5 levels are linked to more self-reported depressive symptoms, and increases in daily suicide rates.[252][253]

In 2015, experimental studies reported the detection of significant episodic (situational) cognitive impairment from impurities in indoor air breathed by test subjects who were not informed about changes in the air quality. Significant deficits were observed in the performance scores achieved in increasing concentrations of either volatile organic compounds (VOCs) or carbon dioxide, while keeping other factors constant. The highest impurity levels reached are not uncommon in some classroom or office environments.[254][255] Higher PM2.5 and CO2 concentrations were shown to be associated with slower response times and reduced accuracy in tests.[256]

PM2.5 Levels Across the World's 5 Most Populated Nations in 2019

"Clean" areas

[edit]
Share of the population exposed to air pollution levels above WHO guidelines, 2017

Even in areas with relatively low levels of air pollution, public health effects can be significant and costly, since a large number of people breathe in such pollutants. A study found that even in areas of the U.S. where ozone and PM2.5 meet federal standards, Medicare recipients who are exposed to more air pollution have higher mortality rates.[257]

Rural populations in India, like those in urban areas, are also exposed to high levels of air pollution.[258] In 2020, scientists found that the boundary layer air over the Southern Ocean around Antarctica is 'unpolluted' by humans.[259]

Agricultural effects

[edit]

Various studies have estimated the impacts of air pollution on agriculture, especially ozone. A 2020 study showed that ozone pollution in California may reduce yields of certain perennial crops such as table grapes by as much as 22% per year, translating into economic damages of more than $1 billion per year.[260] After air pollutants enter the agricultural environment, they not only directly affect agricultural production and quality, but also enter agricultural waters and soil.[261] The COVID-19 induced lockdown served as a natural experiment to expose the close links between air quality and surface greenness. In India, the lockdown induced improvement in air quality, enhanced surface greenness and photosynthetic activity, with the positive response of vegetation to reduce air pollution was dominant in croplands.[262] On the other hand, agriculture in its traditional form is one of the primary contributors to the emission of trace gases like atmospheric ammonia.[263]

Economic effects

[edit]

Air pollution costs the world economy $5 trillion per year as a result of productivity losses and degraded quality of life.[24][25][26] These productivity losses are caused by deaths due to diseases caused by air pollution. One out of ten deaths in 2013 was caused by diseases associated with air pollution and the problem is getting worse.

A small improvement in air quality (1% reduction of ambient PM2.5 and ozone concentrations) would produce $29 million in annual savings in the lower Fraser Valley region in 2010.[264] This finding is based on health valuation of lethal (death) and sub-lethal (illness) affects.

The problem is even more acute in the developing world. "Children under age 5 in lower-income countries are more than 60 times as likely to die from exposure to air pollution as children in high-income countries."[24][25] The report states that additional economic losses caused by air pollution, including health costs[265] and the adverse effect on agricultural and other productivity were not calculated in the report, and thus the actual costs to the world economy are far higher than $5 trillion.

A study published in 2022 found "a strong and significant connection between air pollution and construction site accidents" and that "a 10-ppb increase in NO2 levels increases the likelihood of an accident by as much as 25%".[266]

Other effects

[edit]

Artificial air pollution may be detectable on Earth from distant vantage points such as other planetary systems via atmospheric SETI – including NO2 pollution levels and with telescopic technology close to today. It may also be possible to detect extraterrestrial civilizations this way.[267][268][269]

Historical disasters

[edit]

The world's worst short-term civilian pollution crisis was the 1984 Bhopal Disaster in India.[270] Leaked industrial vapours from the Union Carbide factory, belonging to Union Carbide, Inc., U.S.A. (later bought by Dow Chemical Company), killed at least 3787 people and injured from 150,000 to 600,000. The United Kingdom suffered its worst air pollution event when the 4 December Great Smog of 1952 formed over London. In six days more than 4,000 died and more recent estimates put the figure at nearer 12,000.[271]

An accidental leak of anthrax spores from a biological warfare laboratory in the former USSR in 1979 near Yekaterinburg (formerly Sverdlovsk) is believed to have caused at least 64 deaths.[272] The worst single incident of air pollution to occur in the US occurred in Donora, Pennsylvania, in late October 1948, when 20 people died and over 7,000 were injured.[273]

Reduction and regulation

[edit]

Global depletion of the surrounding air pollution will require valiant leadership, a surplus of combined resources from the international community, and extensive societal changes.[274] Pollution prevention seeks to prevent pollution such as air pollution and could include adjustments to industrial and business activities such as designing sustainable manufacturing processes (and the products' designs)[275] and related legal regulations as well as efforts towards renewable energy transitions.[276][277]

Efforts to reduce particulate matter in the air may result in better health.[278]

The 9-Euro-Ticket scheme in Germany which allowed people to buy a monthly pass allowing use on all local and regional transport (trains, trams and busses) for 9 euro (€) for one month of unlimited travel saved 1.8 million tons of CO2 emissions during its three-month implementation from June to August 2022.[279]

Pollution control

[edit]
Burning of items polluting Jamestown environment in Accra, Ghana

Various pollution control technologies and strategies are available to reduce air pollution.[280][281] At its most basic level, land-use planning is likely to involve zoning and transport infrastructure planning. In most developed countries, land-use planning is an important part of social policy, ensuring that land is used efficiently for the benefit of the wider economy and population, as well as to protect the environment.[282] Stringent environmental regulations, effective control technologies and shift towards the renewable source of energy also helping countries like China and India to reduce their sulfur dioxide pollution.[283]

Titanium dioxide has been researched for its ability to reduce air pollution. Ultraviolet light will release free electrons from material, thereby creating free radicals, which break up VOCs and

NOx gases. One form is superhydrophilic.[284]

Pollution-eating nanoparticles placed near a busy road were shown to absorb toxic emission from around 20 cars each day.[285]

Energy transition

[edit]

Since a large share of air pollution is caused by combustion of fossil fuels such as coal and oil, the reduction of these fuels can reduce air pollution drastically. Most effective is the switch to clean power sources such as wind power, solar power, hydro power which do not cause air pollution.[286] Efforts to reduce pollution from mobile sources includes expanding regulation to new sources (such as cruise and transport ships, farm equipment, and small gas-powered equipment such as string trimmers, chainsaws, and snowmobiles), increased fuel efficiency (such as through the use of hybrid vehicles), conversion to cleaner fuels, and conversion to electric vehicles. For example, buses in New Delhi, India, have run on compressed natural gas since 2000, to help eliminate the city's "pea-soup" smog.[226][287]

A very effective means to reduce air pollution is the transition to renewable energy. According to a study published in Energy and Environmental Science in 2015 the switch to 100% renewable energy in the United States would eliminate about 62,000 premature mortalities per year and about 42,000 in 2050, if no biomass were used. This would save about $600 billion in health costs a year due to reduced air pollution in 2050, or about 3.6% of the 2014 U.S. gross domestic product.[286] Air quality improvement is a near-term benefit among the many societal benefits from climate change mitigation.

Alternatives to pollution

[edit]
Support for a ban on high-emission vehicles in city centres in Europe, China and the US from respondents to the European Investment Bank Climate Survey
Support, use and infrastructure-expansion of forms of public transport that do not cause air pollution may be a critical key alternative to pollution.

There are now practical alternatives to the principal causes of air pollution:

  • Strategic substitution of air pollution sources in transport with lower-emission or, during the lifecycle, emission-free forms of public transport[288][289] and bicycle use and infrastructure (as well as with remote work, reductions of work, relocations, and localizations)
    • Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles is a critical component of a shift to sustainable transport; however, similar infrastructure and design decisions like electric vehicles may be associated with similar pollution for production as well as mining and resource exploitation for large numbers of needed batteries as well as the energy for their recharging[290][291]
  • Areas downwind (over 20 miles) of major airports have more than double total particulate emissions in air than other areas, even when factoring in areas with frequent ship calls, and heavy freeway and city traffic like Los Angeles.[292] Aviation biofuel mixed in with jetfuel at a 50/50 ratio can reduce jet derived cruise altitude particulate emissions by 50–70%, according to a NASA led 2017 study (however, this should imply ground level benefits to urban air pollution as well).[293]
  • Ship propulsion and idling can be switched to much cleaner fuels like natural gas. (Ideally a renewable source but not practical yet)
  • Combustion of fossil fuels for space heating can be replaced by using ground source heat pumps and seasonal thermal energy storage.[294]
  • Electricity generated from the combustion of fossil fuels can be replaced by nuclear and renewable energy. Heating and home stoves, which contribute significantly to regional air pollution, can be replaced with a much cleaner fossil fuel, such as natural gas, or, preferably, renewables, in poor countries.[295][296]
  • Motor vehicles driven by fossil fuels, a key factor in urban air pollution, can be replaced by electric vehicles. Though lithium supply and cost is a limitation, there are alternatives. Herding more people into clean public transit such as electric trains can also help. Nevertheless, even in emission-free electric vehicles, rubber tires produce significant amounts of air pollution themselves, ranking as 13th worst pollutant in Los Angeles.[297]
  • Reducing travel in vehicles can curb pollution. After Stockholm reduced vehicle traffic in the central city with a congestion tax, nitrogen dioxide and PM10 pollution declined, as did acute pediatric asthma attacks.[298]
  • Biodigesters can be utilized in poor nations where slash and burn is prevalent, turning a useless commodity into a source of income. The plants can be gathered and sold to a central authority that will break them down in a large modern biodigester, producing much needed energy to use.[299]
  • Induced humidity and ventilation both can greatly dampen air pollution in enclosed spaces, which was found to be relatively high inside subway lines due to braking and friction and relatively less ironically inside transit buses than lower sitting passenger automobiles or subways.[300]

Control devices

[edit]
Tarps and netting are often used to reduce the amount of dust released from construction sites.
Air pollution from a car

The following items are commonly used as pollution control devices in industry and transportation. They can either destroy contaminants or remove them from an exhaust stream before it is emitted into the atmosphere.

  • Particulate control
    • Mechanical collectors (dust cyclones, multicyclones)
    • Electrostatic precipitators: An electrostatic precipitator (ESP), or electrostatic air cleaner, is a particulate collection device that removes particles from a flowing gas (such as air), using the force of an induced electrostatic charge. Electrostatic precipitators are highly efficient filtration devices that minimally impede the flow of gases through the device, and can easily remove fine particulates such as dust and smoke from the air stream.
    • Baghouses: Designed to handle heavy dust loads, a dust collector consists of a blower, dust filter, a filter-cleaning system, and a dust receptacle or dust removal system (distinguished from air cleaners which utilize disposable filters to remove the dust).
    • Particulate scrubbers: A wet scrubber is a form of pollution control technology. The term describes a variety of devices that use pollutants from a furnace flue gas or from other gas streams. In a wet scrubber, the polluted gas stream is brought into contact with the scrubbing liquid, by spraying it with the liquid, by forcing it through a pool of liquid, or by some other contact method, so as to remove the pollutants.
  • Scrubbers
    • Baffle spray scrubber
    • Cyclonic spray scrubber
    • Ejector venturi scrubber
    • Mechanically aided scrubber
    • Spray tower
    • Wet scrubber
  • NOx control
    • LO-NOx burners
    • Selective catalytic reduction (SCR)
    • Selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR)
    • NOx scrubbers
    • Exhaust gas recirculation
    • Catalytic converter (also for VOC control)
  • VOC abatement
    • Adsorption systems, using activated carbon, such as Fluidized Bed Concentrator
    • Flares
    • Thermal oxidizers
    • Catalytic converters
    • Biofilters
    • Absorption (scrubbing)
    • Cryogenic condensers
    • Vapor recovery systems
  • Acid gas/SO2 control
    • Wet scrubbers
    • Dry scrubbers
    • Flue-gas desulfurization
  • Mercury control
    • Sorbent injection technology
    • Electro-catalytic oxidation (ECO)
    • K-Fuel
  • Dioxin and furan control
  • Miscellaneous associated equipment
    • Source capturing systems
    • Continuous emissions monitoring systems (CEMS)

Monitoring

[edit]

Spatiotemporal monitoring of air quality may be necessary for improving air quality, and thereby the health and safety of the public, and assessing impacts of interventions.[301] Such monitoring is done to different extents with different regulatory requirements with discrepant regional coverage by a variety of organizations and governance entities such as using a variety of technologies for use of the data and sensing such mobile IoT sensors,[302][303] satellites,[304][305][306] and monitoring stations.[307][308] Some websites attempt to map air pollution levels using available data.[309][310][311]

Air quality modeling

[edit]

Numerical models either on a global scale using tools such as GCMs (general circulation models coupled with a pollution module) or CTMs (Chemical transport model) can be used to simulate the levels of different pollutants in the atmosphere. These tools can have several types (Atmospheric model) and different uses. These models can be used in forecast mode which can help policy makers to decide on appropriate actions when an air pollution episode is detected. They can also be used for climate modeling including evolution of air quality in the future, for example the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) provides climate simulations including air quality assessments in their reports (latest report accessible through their site).

Regulations

[edit]
Smog in Cairo

In general, there are two types of air quality standards. The first class of standards (such as the U.S. National Ambient Air Quality Standards and E.U. Air Quality Directive[312]) set maximum atmospheric concentrations for specific pollutants. Environmental agencies enact regulations which are intended to result in attainment of these target levels. The second class (such as the North American air quality index) take the form of a scale with various thresholds, which is used to communicate to the public the relative risk of outdoor activity. The scale may or may not distinguish between different pollutants.

Canada

[edit]

In Canada, air pollution and associated health risks are measured with the Air Quality Health Index (AQHI).[313] It is a health protection tool used to make decisions to reduce short-term exposure to air pollution by adjusting activity levels during increased levels of air pollution.

The AQHI is a federal program jointly coordinated by Health Canada and Environment Canada. However, the AQHI program would not be possible without the commitment and support of the provinces, municipalities and NGOs. From air quality monitoring to health risk communication and community engagement, local partners are responsible for the vast majority of work related to AQHI implementation. The AQHI provides a number from 1 to 10+ to indicate the level of health risk associated with local air quality. Occasionally, when the amount of air pollution is abnormally high, the number may exceed 10. The AQHI provides a local air quality current value as well as a local air quality maximums forecast for today, tonight and tomorrow and provides associated health advice.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 +
Risk: Low (1–3) Moderate (4–6) High (7–10) Very high (above 10)

As it is now known that even low levels of air pollution can trigger discomfort for the sensitive population, the index has been developed as a continuum: The higher the number, the greater the health risk and need to take precautions. The index describes the level of health risk associated with this number as 'low', 'moderate', 'high' or 'very high', and suggests steps that can be taken to reduce exposure.[314]

Health risk Air Quality Health Index Health messages[315]
At risk population General population
Low 1–3 Enjoy your usual outdoor activities. Ideal air quality for outdoor activities
Moderate 4–6 Consider reducing or rescheduling strenuous activities outdoors if you are experiencing symptoms. No need to modify your usual outdoor activities unless you experience symptoms such as coughing and throat irritation.
High 7–10 Reduce or reschedule strenuous activities outdoors. Children and the elderly should also take it easy. Consider reducing or rescheduling strenuous activities outdoors if you experience symptoms such as coughing and throat irritation.
Very high Above 10 Avoid strenuous activities outdoors. Children and the elderly should also avoid outdoor physical exertion and should stay indoors. Reduce or reschedule strenuous activities outdoors, especially if you experience symptoms such as coughing and throat irritation.

The measurement is based on the observed relationship of nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ground-level ozone (O3) and particulates (PM2.5) with mortality, from an analysis of several Canadian cities. Significantly, all three of these pollutants can pose health risks, even at low levels of exposure, especially among those with pre-existing health problems.

When developing the AQHI, Health Canada's original analysis of health effects included five major air pollutants: particulates, ozone, and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), as well as sulfur dioxide (SO2), and carbon monoxide (CO). The latter two pollutants provided little information in predicting health effects and were removed from the AQHI formulation.

The AQHI does not measure the effects of odour, pollen, dust, heat or humidity.

Germany

[edit]

TA Luft is the German air quality regulation.[316]

Governing urban air pollution

[edit]

In Europe, Council Directive 96/62/EC on ambient air quality assessment and management provides a common strategy against which member states can "set objectives for ambient air quality in order to avoid, prevent or reduce harmful effects on human health and the environment ... and improve air quality where it is unsatisfactory".[317]

In July 2008, in the case Dieter Janecek v. Freistaat Bayern, the European Court of Justice ruled that under this directive[317] citizens have the right to require national authorities to implement a short term action plan that aims to maintain or achieve compliance to air quality limit values.[318][319]

This important case law appears to confirm the role of the EC as centralised regulator to European nation-states as regards air pollution control. It places a supranational legal obligation on the UK to protect its citizens from dangerous levels of air pollution, furthermore superseding national interests with those of the citizen.

In 2010, the European Commission (EC) threatened the UK with legal action against the successive breaching of PM10 limit values.[320] The UK government has identified that if fines are imposed, they could cost the nation upwards of £300 million per year.[321]

In March 2011, the Greater London Built-up Area remained the only UK region in breach of the EC's limit values, and was given three months to implement an emergency action plan aimed at meeting the EU Air Quality Directive.[322] The City of London has dangerous levels of PM10 concentrations, estimated to cause 3000 deaths per year within the city.[323] As well as the threat of EU fines, in 2010 it was threatened with legal action for scrapping the western congestion charge zone, which is claimed to have led to an increase in air pollution levels.[324]

In response to these charges, mayor of London Boris Johnson has criticised the current need for European cities to communicate with Europe through their nation state's central government, arguing that in future "A great city like London" should be permitted to bypass its government and deal directly with the European Commission regarding its air quality action plan.[322]

This can be interpreted as recognition that cities can transcend the traditional national government organisational hierarchy and develop solutions to air pollution using global governance networks, for example through transnational relations. Transnational relations include but are not exclusive to national governments and intergovernmental organisations,[325] allowing sub-national actors including cities and regions to partake in air pollution control as independent actors.

Global city partnerships can be built into networks, for example the C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group, of which London is a member. The C40 is a public 'non-state' network of the world's leading cities that aims to curb their greenhouse emissions.[326] The C40 has been identified as 'governance from the middle' and is an alternative to intergovernmental policy.[327] It has the potential to improve urban air quality as participating cities "exchange information, learn from best practices and consequently mitigate carbon dioxide emissions independently from national government decisions".[326] A criticism of the C40 network is that its exclusive nature limits influence to participating cities and risks drawing resources away from less powerful city and regional actors.

Indigenous people

[edit]

Because Indigenous people[328] frequently experience a disproportionate share of the effects of environmental degradation and climate change, even while they have made very little contribution to the processes causing these changes, environmental justice is especially important to them. Indigenous peoples have been marginalized and their lands and resources have been exploited as a result of historical and continuing colonization, institutional injustices, and inequality.

Indigenous groups frequently lack the political and financial clout to influence policy decisions that impact their lands and means of subsistence or to lessen the effects of climate change. This makes the already-existing inequalities in these communities' social, economic, and health conditions worse. Furthermore, traditional ecological knowledge and Indigenous knowledge systems provide insightful information about sustainable resource management and climate change adaptation techniques. To promote persistence and environmental justice, Indigenous viewpoints must be acknowledged and integrated into efforts to mitigate the effects of climate change and adapt to them.

Combating climate change necessitates an all-encompassing strategy that recognizes the interdependence of social, economic, and environmental elements. This entails defending treaty rights, advancing Indigenous sovereignty and self-determination, and aiding Indigenous-led projects for sustainable development and environmental preservation.

Hotspots

[edit]

Air pollution hotspots are areas where air pollution emissions expose individuals to increased negative health effects.[329] They are particularly common in highly populated, urban areas, where there may be a combination of stationary sources (e.g. industrial facilities) and mobile sources (e.g. cars and trucks) of pollution. Emissions from these sources can cause respiratory disease, childhood asthma,[141] cancer, and other health problems. Fine particulate matter such as diesel soot, which contributes to more than 3.2 million premature deaths around the world each year, is a significant problem. It is very small and can lodge itself within the lungs and enter the bloodstream. Diesel soot is concentrated in densely populated areas, and one in six people in the U.S. live near a diesel pollution hot spot.[330]

External videos
video icon AirVisual Earth – realtime map of global wind and air pollution[331]

While air pollution hotspots affect a variety of populations, some groups are more likely to be located in hotspots. Previous studies have shown disparities in exposure to pollution by race and/or income. Hazardous land uses (toxic storage and disposal facilities, manufacturing facilities, major roadways) tend to be located where property values and income levels are low. Low socioeconomic status can be a proxy for other kinds of social vulnerability, including race, a lack of ability to influence regulation and a lack of ability to move to neighborhoods with less environmental pollution. These communities bear a disproportionate burden of environmental pollution and are more likely to face health risks such as cancer or asthma.[332]

Studies show that patterns in race and income disparities not only indicate a higher exposure to pollution but also higher risk of adverse health outcomes.[333] Communities characterized by low socioeconomic status and racial minorities can be more vulnerable to cumulative adverse health impacts resulting from elevated exposure to pollutants than more privileged communities.[333] Blacks and Latinos generally face more pollution than Whites and Asians, and low-income communities bear a higher burden of risk than affluent ones.[332] Racial discrepancies are particularly distinct in suburban areas of the Southern United States and metropolitan areas of the Midwestern and Western United States.[334] Residents in public housing, who are generally low-income and cannot move to healthier neighborhoods, are highly affected by nearby refineries and chemical plants.[335]

Cities

[edit]
Nitrogen dioxide concentrations as measured from satellite 2002–2004

Air pollution is usually concentrated in densely populated metropolitan areas, especially in developing countries where cities are experiencing rapid growth and environmental regulations are relatively lax or nonexistent. Urbanization leads to a rapid rise in premature mortality due to anthropogenic air pollution in fast-growing tropical cities.[336] However, even populated areas in developed countries attain unhealthy levels of pollution, with Los Angeles and Rome being two examples.[337] Between 2002 and 2011 the incidence of lung cancer in Beijing near doubled. While smoking remains the leading cause of lung cancer in China, the number of smokers is falling while lung cancer rates are rising .[338]

[339]
World's Most Polluted Cities 2020 2020 Average 2019 Average
Hotan, China 110.2 110.1
Ghaziabad, India 106.6 110.2
Bulandshahr, India 98.4 89.4
Bisrakh Jalalpur, India 96.0 -
Bhiwadi, India 95.5 83.4

Tehran was declared the most polluted city in the world on May 24, 2022.[340]

Projections

[edit]

In a 2019 projection, by 2030 half of the world's pollution emissions could be generated by Africa.[341] Potential contributors to such an outcome include increased burning activities (such as the burning of open waste), traffic, agri-food and chemical industries, sand dust from the Sahara, and overall population growth.

In a 2012 study, by 2050 outdoor air pollution (particulate matter and ground-level ozone) is projected to become the top cause of environmentally related deaths worldwide.[342]

See also

[edit]

Source

  • Beehive burner
  • Bottom ash
  • Concrete#Concrete – health and safety
  • Diwali-related air pollution
  • Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion
  • Health impacts of sawdust
  • Joss paper
  • Metal working
  • Mining
  • Non-exhaust emissions
  • Power tool
  • Rubber pollution
  • Slag
  • Smelting
  • Tire fire
  • Welding
  • Wood ash

Measurement

  • Air pollutant concentrations
  • Air pollution measurement
  • Organic molecular tracers
  • Intake fraction
  • Particulate matter sampler

Others

  • Air stagnation
  • ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution
  • Asian brown cloud
  • Atmospheric chemistry
  • BenMAP
  • Best Available Control Technology
  • Critical load
  • Emission standard
  • Emissions & Generation Resource Integrated Database
  • Environmental agreement
  • Environmental racism
  • Exposome
  • Global Atmosphere Watch
  • Global dimming
  • Great Smog of London
  • Haze
  • Health Effects Institute (HEI)
  • Indicator value
  • International Agency for Research on Cancer
  • International Day of Clean Air for Blue Skies
  • Kyoto Protocol
  • Light water reactor sustainability
  • List of smogs by death toll
  • Lowest Achievable Emissions Rate
  • NASA Clean Air Study
  • NIEHS
  • Phytoremediation
  • Polluter pays principle
  • Regulation of greenhouse gases under the Clean Air Act
  • Silicosis#Prevention

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Further reading

[edit]
  • Brimblecombe P (1987). The Big Smoke: A History of Air Pollution in London Since Medieval Times. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-70329-4.
  • Brimblecombe P (1995). "1: History of air pollution". In Singh H (ed.). Composition, chemistry, and climate of the atmosphere. New York: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 1–18. ISBN 978-0-471-28514-4. OCLC 43084000.
  • Brimblecombe P, Makra L (2005). "Selections from the history of environmental pollution, with special attention to air pollution. Part 2*: From medieval times to the 19th century". International Journal of Environment and Pollution. 23 (4): 351–67. doi:10.1504/ijep.2005.007599.
  • Cherni, Judith A. Economic Growth versus the Environment: The Politics of Wealth, Health and Air Pollution (2002) online
  • Corton, Christine L. London Fog: The Biography (2015)
  • Currie, Donya. "WHO: Air Pollution a Continuing Health Threat in World's Cities", The Nation's Health (February 2012) 42#1 online
  • Dewey, Scott Hamilton. Don't Breathe the Air: Air Pollution and US Environmental Politics, 1945–1970 (Texas A & M University Press, 2000)
  • Gonzalez, George A. The politics of air pollution: Urban growth, ecological modernization, and symbolic inclusion (SUNY Press, 2012)
  • Grinder RD (1978). "From Insurgency to Efficiency: The Smoke Abatement Campaign in Pittsburgh before World War I.". Western Pennsylvania Historical Magazine. 61 (3): 187–202.
  • Grinder, Robert Dale. "The Battle for Clean Air: The Smoke Problem in Post-Civil War America" in Martin V. Melosi, ed., Pollution & Reform in American Cities, 1870–1930 (1980), pp. 83–103.
  • Kumar P, Pirjola L, Ketzel M, Harrison RM (2013). "Nanoparticle emissions from 11 non-vehicle exhaust sources – A review". Atmospheric Environment. 67. Elsevier BV: 252–277. Bibcode:2013AtmEn..67..252K. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2012.11.011. ISSN 1352-2310.
  • Lundqvist LJ (1980). The Hare and the Tortoise: Clean Air Policy in the US and Sweden. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-09310-6.
  • Mingle, Jonathan, "Our Lethal Air" [review of Gary Fuller, The Invisible Killer...; Beth Gardiner, Choked...; Tim Smedley, Clearing the Air...; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Integrated Science Assessment for Particulate Matter (External Review Draft, 2018); and Chartered Clean Air Scientific Advisory Committee, Letter to EPA Administrator on the EPA's Integrated Science Assessment for Particulate Matter, 11 April 2019], The New York Review of Books, vol. LXVI, no. 14 (26 September 2019), pp. 64–66, 68. "Today, 91 percent of people worldwide live in areas where air pollution levels exceed the World Health Organization's recommended limits. ... [T]here is no safe level of exposure to fine particulate matter. ... Most of these fine particles are a by-product of ... burning ... coal, gasoline, diesel, wood, trash ... These particles can get past the defenses of our upper airways to penetrate deep into our lungs and reach the alveoli ... From there, they cross into the bloodstream and spread throughout the body. They can travel through the nose, up the olfactory nerve, and lodge ... in the brain. They can form deposits on the lining of arteries, constricting blood vessels and raising the likelihood of ... strokes and heart attacks. [T]hey exacerbate respiratory illnesses like asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease ... There's ... evidence linking air pollution exposure to an increased risk of Alzheimer's and other forms of dementia." (p. 64.)
  • Mosley, Stephen. The chimney of the world: a history of smoke pollution in Victorian and Edwardian Manchester. Routledge, 2013.
  • Schreurs, Miranda A. Environmental Politics in Japan, Germany, and the United States (Cambridge University Press, 2002) online
  • Thorsheim, Peter. Inventing Pollution: Coal, Smoke, and Culture in Britain since 1800 (2009)
[edit]
  • WHO fact sheet on outdoor air pollution
  • Air Pollution: Everything You Need to Know Guide by the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC)
  • Global real-time air quality index map
  • Air Quality Index (AQI) Basics
  • AQI Calculator AQI to Concentration and Concentration to AQI for five pollutants
  • UNEP Urban environmental planning
  • European Commission > Environment > Air > Air Quality
  • Database: outdoor air pollution in cities from the World Health Organization
  • The Mortality Effects of Long-Term Exposure to Particulate Air Pollution in the United Kingdom, UK Committee on the Medical Effects of Air Pollution, 2010.
  • Hazardous air pollutants | What are hazardous pollutants at EPA.gov

 

 

There are various types of air conditioners. Popular examples include: Window-mounted air conditioner (Suriname, 1955); Ceiling-mounted cassette air conditioner (China, 2023); Wall-mounted air conditioner (Japan, 2020); Ceiling-mounted console (Also called ceiling suspended) air conditioner (China, 2023); and portable air conditioner (Vatican City, 2018).

 

Air conditioning, often abbreviated as A/C (US) or air con (UK),[1] is the process of removing heat from an enclosed space to achieve a more comfortable interior temperature (sometimes referred to as 'comfort cooling') and in some cases also strictly controlling the humidity of internal air. Air conditioning can be achieved using a mechanical 'air conditioner' or by other methods, including passive cooling and ventilative cooling.[2][3] Air conditioning is a member of a family of systems and techniques that provide heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC).[4] Heat pumps are similar in many ways to air conditioners, but use a reversing valve to allow them both to heat and to cool an enclosed space.[5]

Air conditioners, which typically use vapor-compression refrigeration, range in size from small units used in vehicles or single rooms to massive units that can cool large buildings.[6] Air source heat pumps, which can be used for heating as well as cooling, are becoming increasingly common in cooler climates.

Air conditioners can reduce mortality rates due to higher temperature.[7] According to the International Energy Agency (IEA) 1.6 billion air conditioning units were used globally in 2016.[8] The United Nations called for the technology to be made more sustainable to mitigate climate change and for the use of alternatives, like passive cooling, evaporative cooling, selective shading, windcatchers, and better thermal insulation.

History

[edit]

Air conditioning dates back to prehistory.[9] Double-walled living quarters, with a gap between the two walls to encourage air flow, were found in the ancient city of Hamoukar, in modern Syria.[10] Ancient Egyptian buildings also used a wide variety of passive air-conditioning techniques.[11] These became widespread from the Iberian Peninsula through North Africa, the Middle East, and Northern India.[12]

Passive techniques remained widespread until the 20th century when they fell out of fashion and were replaced by powered air conditioning. Using information from engineering studies of traditional buildings, passive techniques are being revived and modified for 21st-century architectural designs.[13][12]

An array of air conditioner condenser units outside a commercial office building

Air conditioners allow the building's indoor environment to remain relatively constant, largely independent of changes in external weather conditions and internal heat loads. They also enable deep plan buildings to be created and have allowed people to live comfortably in hotter parts of the world.[14]

Development

[edit]

Preceding discoveries

[edit]

In 1558, Giambattista della Porta described a method of chilling ice to temperatures far below its freezing point by mixing it with potassium nitrate (then called "nitre") in his popular science book Natural Magic.[15][16][17] In 1620, Cornelis Drebbel demonstrated "Turning Summer into Winter" for James I of England, chilling part of the Great Hall of Westminster Abbey with an apparatus of troughs and vats.[18] Drebbel's contemporary Francis Bacon, like della Porta a believer in science communication, may not have been present at the demonstration, but in a book published later the same year, he described it as "experiment of artificial freezing" and said that "Nitre (or rather its spirit) is very cold, and hence nitre or salt when added to snow or ice intensifies the cold of the latter, the nitre by adding to its cold, but the salt by supplying activity to the cold of the snow."[15]

In 1758, Benjamin Franklin and John Hadley, a chemistry professor at the University of Cambridge, conducted experiments applying the principle of evaporation as a means to cool an object rapidly. Franklin and Hadley confirmed that the evaporation of highly volatile liquids (such as alcohol and ether) could be used to drive down the temperature of an object past the freezing point of water. They experimented with the bulb of a mercury-in-glass thermometer as their object. They used a bellows to speed up the evaporation. They lowered the temperature of the thermometer bulb down to −14 °C (7 °F) while the ambient temperature was 18 °C (64 °F). Franklin noted that soon after they passed the freezing point of water 0 °C (32 °F), a thin film of ice formed on the surface of the thermometer's bulb and that the ice mass was about 6 mm (14 in) thick when they stopped the experiment upon reaching −14 °C (7 °F). Franklin concluded: "From this experiment, one may see the possibility of freezing a man to death on a warm summer's day."[19]

The 19th century included many developments in compression technology. In 1820, English scientist and inventor Michael Faraday discovered that compressing and liquefying ammonia could chill air when the liquefied ammonia was allowed to evaporate.[20] In 1842, Florida physician John Gorrie used compressor technology to create ice, which he used to cool air for his patients in his hospital in Apalachicola, Florida. He hoped to eventually use his ice-making machine to regulate the temperature of buildings.[20][21] He envisioned centralized air conditioning that could cool entire cities. Gorrie was granted a patent in 1851,[22] but following the death of his main backer, he was not able to realize his invention.[23] In 1851, James Harrison created the first mechanical ice-making machine in Geelong, Australia, and was granted a patent for an ether vapor-compression refrigeration system in 1855 that produced three tons of ice per day.[24] In 1860, Harrison established a second ice company. He later entered the debate over competing against the American advantage of ice-refrigerated beef sales to the United Kingdom.[24]

First devices

[edit]
Willis Carrier, who is credited with building the first modern electrical air conditioning unit

Electricity made the development of effective units possible. In 1901, American inventor Willis H. Carrier built what is considered the first modern electrical air conditioning unit.[25][26][27][28] In 1902, he installed his first air-conditioning system, in the Sackett-Wilhelms Lithographing & Publishing Company in Brooklyn, New York.[29] His invention controlled both the temperature and humidity, which helped maintain consistent paper dimensions and ink alignment at the printing plant. Later, together with six other employees, Carrier formed The Carrier Air Conditioning Company of America, a business that in 2020 employed 53,000 people and was valued at $18.6 billion.[30][31]

In 1906, Stuart W. Cramer of Charlotte, North Carolina, was exploring ways to add moisture to the air in his textile mill. Cramer coined the term "air conditioning" in a patent claim which he filed that year, where he suggested that air conditioning was analogous to "water conditioning", then a well-known process for making textiles easier to process.[32] He combined moisture with ventilation to "condition" and change the air in the factories; thus, controlling the humidity that is necessary in textile plants. Willis Carrier adopted the term and incorporated it into the name of his company.[33]

Domestic air conditioning soon took off. In 1914, the first domestic air conditioning was installed in Minneapolis in the home of Charles Gilbert Gates. It is, however, possible that the considerable device (c. 2.1 m × 1.8 m × 6.1 m; 7 ft × 6 ft × 20 ft) was never used, as the house remained uninhabited[20] (Gates had already died in October 1913.)

In 1931, H.H. Schultz and J.Q. Sherman developed what would become the most common type of individual room air conditioner: one designed to sit on a window ledge. The units went on sale in 1932 at US$10,000 to $50,000 (the equivalent of $200,000 to $1,100,000 in 2023.)[20] A year later, the first air conditioning systems for cars were offered for sale.[34] Chrysler Motors introduced the first practical semi-portable air conditioning unit in 1935,[35] and Packard became the first automobile manufacturer to offer an air conditioning unit in its cars in 1939.[36]

Further development

[edit]

Innovations in the latter half of the 20th century allowed more ubiquitous air conditioner use. In 1945, Robert Sherman of Lynn, Massachusetts, invented a portable, in-window air conditioner that cooled, heated, humidified, dehumidified, and filtered the air.[37] The first inverter air conditioners were released in 1980–1981.[38][39]

In 1954, Ned Cole, a 1939 architecture graduate from the University of Texas at Austin, developed the first experimental "suburb" with inbuilt air conditioning in each house. 22 homes were developed on a flat, treeless track in northwest Austin, Texas, and the community was christened the 'Austin Air-Conditioned Village.' The residents were subjected to a year-long study of the effects of air conditioning led by the nation’s premier air conditioning companies, builders, and social scientists. In addition, researchers from UT’s Health Service and Psychology Department studied the effects on the "artificially cooled humans." One of the more amusing discoveries was that each family reported being troubled with scorpions, the leading theory being that scorpions sought cool, shady places. Other reported changes in lifestyle were that mothers baked more, families ate heavier foods, and they were more apt to choose hot drinks.[40][41]

Air conditioner adoption tends to increase above around $10,000 annual household income in warmer areas.[42] Global GDP growth explains around 85% of increased air condition adoption by 2050, while the remaining 15% can be explained by climate change.[42]

As of 2016 an estimated 1.6 billion air conditioning units were used worldwide, with over half of them in China and USA, and a total cooling capacity of 11,675 gigawatts.[8][43] The International Energy Agency predicted in 2018 that the number of air conditioning units would grow to around 4 billion units by 2050 and that the total cooling capacity would grow to around 23,000 GW, with the biggest increases in India and China.[8] Between 1995 and 2004, the proportion of urban households in China with air conditioners increased from 8% to 70%.[44] As of 2015, nearly 100 million homes, or about 87% of US households, had air conditioning systems.[45] In 2019, it was estimated that 90% of new single-family homes constructed in the US included air conditioning (ranging from 99% in the South to 62% in the West).[46][47]

Operation

[edit]

Operating principles

[edit]
A simple stylized diagram of the refrigeration cycle: 1) condensing coil, 2) expansion valve, 3) evaporator coil, 4) compressor

Cooling in traditional air conditioner systems is accomplished using the vapor-compression cycle, which uses a refrigerant's forced circulation and phase change between gas and liquid to transfer heat.[48][49] The vapor-compression cycle can occur within a unitary, or packaged piece of equipment; or within a chiller that is connected to terminal cooling equipment (such as a fan coil unit in an air handler) on its evaporator side and heat rejection equipment such as a cooling tower on its condenser side. An air source heat pump shares many components with an air conditioning system, but includes a reversing valve, which allows the unit to be used to heat as well as cool a space.[50]

Air conditioning equipment will reduce the absolute humidity of the air processed by the system if the surface of the evaporator coil is significantly cooler than the dew point of the surrounding air. An air conditioner designed for an occupied space will typically achieve a 30% to 60% relative humidity in the occupied space.[51]

Most modern air-conditioning systems feature a dehumidification cycle during which the compressor runs. At the same time, the fan is slowed to reduce the evaporator temperature and condense more water. A dehumidifier uses the same refrigeration cycle but incorporates both the evaporator and the condenser into the same air path; the air first passes over the evaporator coil, where it is cooled[52] and dehumidified before passing over the condenser coil, where it is warmed again before it is released back into the room.[citation needed]

Free cooling can sometimes be selected when the external air is cooler than the internal air. Therefore, the compressor does not need to be used, resulting in high cooling efficiencies for these times. This may also be combined with seasonal thermal energy storage.[53]

Heating

[edit]

Some air conditioning systems can reverse the refrigeration cycle and act as an air source heat pump, thus heating instead of cooling the indoor environment. They are also commonly referred to as "reverse cycle air conditioners". The heat pump is significantly more energy-efficient than electric resistance heating, because it moves energy from air or groundwater to the heated space and the heat from purchased electrical energy. When the heat pump is in heating mode, the indoor evaporator coil switches roles and becomes the condenser coil, producing heat. The outdoor condenser unit also switches roles to serve as the evaporator and discharges cold air (colder than the ambient outdoor air).

Most air source heat pumps become less efficient in outdoor temperatures lower than 4 °C or 40 °F.[54] This is partly because ice forms on the outdoor unit's heat exchanger coil, which blocks air flow over the coil. To compensate for this, the heat pump system must temporarily switch back into the regular air conditioning mode to switch the outdoor evaporator coil back to the condenser coil, to heat up and defrost. Therefore, some heat pump systems will have electric resistance heating in the indoor air path that is activated only in this mode to compensate for the temporary indoor air cooling, which would otherwise be uncomfortable in the winter.

Newer models have improved cold-weather performance, with efficient heating capacity down to −14 °F (−26 °C).[55][54][56] However, there is always a chance that the humidity that condenses on the heat exchanger of the outdoor unit could freeze, even in models that have improved cold-weather performance, requiring a defrosting cycle to be performed.

The icing problem becomes much more severe with lower outdoor temperatures, so heat pumps are sometimes installed in tandem with a more conventional form of heating, such as an electrical heater, a natural gas, heating oil, or wood-burning fireplace or central heating, which is used instead of or in addition to the heat pump during harsher winter temperatures. In this case, the heat pump is used efficiently during milder temperatures, and the system is switched to the conventional heat source when the outdoor temperature is lower.

Performance

[edit]

The coefficient of performance (COP) of an air conditioning system is a ratio of useful heating or cooling provided to the work required.[57][58] Higher COPs equate to lower operating costs. The COP usually exceeds 1; however, the exact value is highly dependent on operating conditions, especially absolute temperature and relative temperature between sink and system, and is often graphed or averaged against expected conditions.[59] Air conditioner equipment power in the U.S. is often described in terms of "tons of refrigeration", with each approximately equal to the cooling power of one short ton (2,000 pounds (910 kg) of ice melting in a 24-hour period. The value is equal to 12,000 BTUIT per hour, or 3,517 watts.[60] Residential central air systems are usually from 1 to 5 tons (3.5 to 18 kW) in capacity.[citation needed]

The efficiency of air conditioners is often rated by the seasonal energy efficiency ratio (SEER), which is defined by the Air Conditioning, Heating and Refrigeration Institute in its 2008 standard AHRI 210/240, Performance Rating of Unitary Air-Conditioning and Air-Source Heat Pump Equipment.[61] A similar standard is the European seasonal energy efficiency ratio (ESEER).[citation needed]

Efficiency is strongly affected by the humidity of the air to be cooled. Dehumidifying the air before attempting to cool it can reduce subsequent cooling costs by as much as 90 percent. Thus, reducing dehumidifying costs can materially affect overall air conditioning costs.[62]

Control system

[edit]

Wireless remote control

[edit]
A wireless remote controller
The infrared transmitting LED on the remote
The infrared receiver on the air conditioner

This type of controller uses an infrared LED to relay commands from a remote control to the air conditioner. The output of the infrared LED (like that of any infrared remote) is invisible to the human eye because its wavelength is beyond the range of visible light (940 nm). This system is commonly used on mini-split air conditioners because it is simple and portable. Some window and ducted central air conditioners uses it as well.

Wired controller

[edit]
Several wired controllers (Indonesia, 2024)

A wired controller, also called a "wired thermostat," is a device that controls an air conditioner by switching heating or cooling on or off. It uses different sensors to measure temperatures and actuate control operations. Mechanical thermostats commonly use bimetallic strips, converting a temperature change into mechanical displacement, to actuate control of the air conditioner. Electronic thermostats, instead, use a thermistor or other semiconductor sensor, processing temperature change as electronic signals to control the air conditioner.

These controllers are usually used in hotel rooms because they are permanently installed into a wall and hard-wired directly into the air conditioner unit, eliminating the need for batteries.

Types

[edit]
 
Types Typical Capacity* Air supply Mounting Typical application
Mini-split small – large Direct Wall Residential
Window very small – small Direct Window Residential
Portable very small – small Direct / Ducted Floor Residential, remote areas
Ducted (individual) small – very large Ducted Ceiling Residential, commercial
Ducted (central) medium – very large Ducted Ceiling Residential, commercial
Ceiling suspended medium – large Direct Ceiling Commercial
Cassette medium – large Direct / Ducted Ceiling Commercial
Floor standing medium – large Direct / Ducted Floor Commercial
Packaged very large Direct / Ducted Floor Commercial
Packaged RTU (Rooftop Unit) very large Ducted Rooftop Commercial

* where the typical capacity is in kilowatt as follows:

  • very small: <1.5 kW
  • small: 1.5–3.5 kW
  • medium: 4.2–7.1 kW
  • large: 7.2–14 kW
  • very large: >14 kW

Mini-split and multi-split systems

[edit]
Evaporator, indoor unit, or terminal, side of a ductless split-type air conditioner

Ductless systems (often mini-split, though there are now ducted mini-split) typically supply conditioned and heated air to a single or a few rooms of a building, without ducts and in a decentralized manner.[63] Multi-zone or multi-split systems are a common application of ductless systems and allow up to eight rooms (zones or locations) to be conditioned independently from each other, each with its indoor unit and simultaneously from a single outdoor unit.

The first mini-split system was sold in 1961 by Toshiba in Japan, and the first wall-mounted mini-split air conditioner was sold in 1968 in Japan by Mitsubishi Electric, where small home sizes motivated their development. The Mitsubishi model was the first air conditioner with a cross-flow fan.[64][65][66] In 1969, the first mini-split air conditioner was sold in the US.[67] Multi-zone ductless systems were invented by Daikin in 1973, and variable refrigerant flow systems (which can be thought of as larger multi-split systems) were also invented by Daikin in 1982. Both were first sold in Japan.[68] Variable refrigerant flow systems when compared with central plant cooling from an air handler, eliminate the need for large cool air ducts, air handlers, and chillers; instead cool refrigerant is transported through much smaller pipes to the indoor units in the spaces to be conditioned, thus allowing for less space above dropped ceilings and a lower structural impact, while also allowing for more individual and independent temperature control of spaces. The outdoor and indoor units can be spread across the building.[69] Variable refrigerant flow indoor units can also be turned off individually in unused spaces.[citation needed] The lower start-up power of VRF's DC inverter compressors and their inherent DC power requirements also allow VRF solar-powered heat pumps to be run using DC-providing solar panels.

Ducted central systems

[edit]

Split-system central air conditioners consist of two heat exchangers, an outside unit (the condenser) from which heat is rejected to the environment and an internal heat exchanger (the evaporator, or Fan Coil Unit, FCU) with the piped refrigerant being circulated between the two. The FCU is then connected to the spaces to be cooled by ventilation ducts.[70] Floor standing air conditioners are similar to this type of air conditioner but sit within spaces that need cooling.

Central plant cooling

[edit]
Industrial air conditioners on top of the shopping mall Passage in Linz, Austria

Large central cooling plants may use intermediate coolant such as chilled water pumped into air handlers or fan coil units near or in the spaces to be cooled which then duct or deliver cold air into the spaces to be conditioned, rather than ducting cold air directly to these spaces from the plant, which is not done due to the low density and heat capacity of air, which would require impractically large ducts. The chilled water is cooled by chillers in the plant, which uses a refrigeration cycle to cool water, often transferring its heat to the atmosphere even in liquid-cooled chillers through the use of cooling towers. Chillers may be air- or liquid-cooled.[71][72]

Portable units

[edit]

A portable system has an indoor unit on wheels connected to an outdoor unit via flexible pipes, similar to a permanently fixed installed unit (such as a ductless split air conditioner).

Hose systems, which can be monoblock or air-to-air, are vented to the outside via air ducts. The monoblock type collects the water in a bucket or tray and stops when full. The air-to-air type re-evaporates the water, discharges it through the ducted hose, and can run continuously. Many but not all portable units draw indoor air and expel it outdoors through a single duct, negatively impacting their overall cooling efficiency.

Many portable air conditioners come with heat as well as a dehumidification function.[73]

Window unit and packaged terminal

[edit]
Through-the-wall PTAC units, University Motor Inn, Philadelphia

The packaged terminal air conditioner (PTAC), through-the-wall, and window air conditioners are similar. These units are installed on a window frame or on a wall opening. The unit usually has an internal partition separating its indoor and outdoor sides, which contain the unit's condenser and evaporator, respectively. PTAC systems may be adapted to provide heating in cold weather, either directly by using an electric strip, gas, or other heaters, or by reversing the refrigerant flow to heat the interior and draw heat from the exterior air, converting the air conditioner into a heat pump. They may be installed in a wall opening with the help of a special sleeve on the wall and a custom grill that is flush with the wall and window air conditioners can also be installed in a window, but without a custom grill.[74]

Packaged air conditioner

[edit]

Packaged air conditioners (also known as self-contained units)[75][76] are central systems that integrate into a single housing all the components of a split central system, and deliver air, possibly through ducts, to the spaces to be cooled. Depending on their construction they may be outdoors or indoors, on roofs (rooftop units),[77][78] draw the air to be conditioned from inside or outside a building and be water or air-cooled. Often, outdoor units are air-cooled while indoor units are liquid-cooled using a cooling tower.[70][79][80][81][82][83]

Types of compressors

[edit]
 
Compressor types Common applications Typical capacity Efficiency Durability Repairability
Reciprocating Refrigerator, Walk-in freezer, portable air conditioners small – large very low (small capacity)

medium (large capacity)

very low medium
Rotary vane Residential mini splits small low low easy
Scroll Commercial and central systems, VRF medium medium medium easy
Rotary screw Commercial chiller medium – large medium medium hard
Centrifugal Commercial chiller very large medium high hard
Maglev Centrifugal Commercial chiller very large high very high very hard

Reciprocating

[edit]

This compressor consists of a crankcase, crankshaft, piston rod, piston, piston ring, cylinder head and valves. [citation needed]

Scroll

[edit]

This compressor uses two interleaving scrolls to compress the refrigerant.[84] it consists of one fixed and one orbiting scrolls. This type of compressor is more efficient because it has 70 percent less moving parts than a reciprocating compressor. [citation needed]

Screw

[edit]

This compressor use two very closely meshing spiral rotors to compress the gas. The gas enters at the suction side and moves through the threads as the screws rotate. The meshing rotors force the gas through the compressor, and the gas exits at the end of the screws. The working area is the inter-lobe volume between the male and female rotors. It is larger at the intake end, and decreases along the length of the rotors until the exhaust port. This change in volume is the compression. [citation needed]

Capacity modulation technologies

[edit]

There are several ways to modulate the cooling capacity in refrigeration or air conditioning and heating systems. The most common in air conditioning are: on-off cycling, hot gas bypass, use or not of liquid injection, manifold configurations of multiple compressors, mechanical modulation (also called digital), and inverter technology. [citation needed]

Hot gas bypass

[edit]

Hot gas bypass involves injecting a quantity of gas from discharge to the suction side. The compressor will keep operating at the same speed, but due to the bypass, the refrigerant mass flow circulating with the system is reduced, and thus the cooling capacity. This naturally causes the compressor to run uselessly during the periods when the bypass is operating. The turn down capacity varies between 0 and 100%.[85]

Manifold configurations

[edit]

Several compressors can be installed in the system to provide the peak cooling capacity. Each compressor can run or not in order to stage the cooling capacity of the unit. The turn down capacity is either 0/33/66 or 100% for a trio configuration and either 0/50 or 100% for a tandem.[citation needed]

Mechanically modulated compressor

[edit]

This internal mechanical capacity modulation is based on periodic compression process with a control valve, the two scroll set move apart stopping the compression for a given time period. This method varies refrigerant flow by changing the average time of compression, but not the actual speed of the motor. Despite an excellent turndown ratio – from 10 to 100% of the cooling capacity, mechanically modulated scrolls have high energy consumption as the motor continuously runs.[citation needed]

Variable-speed compressor

[edit]

This system uses a variable-frequency drive (also called an Inverter) to control the speed of the compressor. The refrigerant flow rate is changed by the change in the speed of the compressor. The turn down ratio depends on the system configuration and manufacturer. It modulates from 15 or 25% up to 100% at full capacity with a single inverter from 12 to 100% with a hybrid tandem. This method is the most efficient way to modulate an air conditioner's capacity. It is up to 58% more efficient than a fixed speed system.[citation needed]

Impact

[edit]

Health effects

[edit]
Rooftop condenser unit fitted on top of an Osaka Municipal Subway 10 series subway carriage. Air conditioning has become increasingly prevalent on public transport vehicles as a form of climate control, and to ensure passenger comfort and drivers' occupational safety and health.

In hot weather, air conditioning can prevent heat stroke, dehydration due to excessive sweating, electrolyte imbalance, kidney failure, and other issues due to hyperthermia.[8][86] Heat waves are the most lethal type of weather phenomenon in the United States.[87][88] A 2020 study found that areas with lower use of air conditioning correlated with higher rates of heat-related mortality and hospitalizations.[89] The August 2003 France heatwave resulted in approximately 15,000 deaths, where 80% of the victims were over 75 years old. In response, the French government required all retirement homes to have at least one air-conditioned room at 25 °C (77 °F) per floor during heatwaves.[8]

Air conditioning (including filtration, humidification, cooling and disinfection) can be used to provide a clean, safe, hypoallergenic atmosphere in hospital operating rooms and other environments where proper atmosphere is critical to patient safety and well-being. It is sometimes recommended for home use by people with allergies, especially mold.[90][91] However, poorly maintained water cooling towers can promote the growth and spread of microorganisms such as Legionella pneumophila, the infectious agent responsible for Legionnaires' disease. As long as the cooling tower is kept clean (usually by means of a chlorine treatment), these health hazards can be avoided or reduced. The state of New York has codified requirements for registration, maintenance, and testing of cooling towers to protect against Legionella.[92]

Economic effects

[edit]

First designed to benefit targeted industries such as the press as well as large factories, the invention quickly spread to public agencies and administrations with studies with claims of increased productivity close to 24% in places equipped with air conditioning.[93]

Air conditioning caused various shifts in demography, notably that of the United States starting from the 1970s. In the US, the birth rate was lower in the spring than during other seasons until the 1970s but this difference then declined since then.[94] As of 2007, the Sun Belt contained 30% of the total US population while it was inhabited by 24% of Americans at the beginning of the 20th century.[95] Moreover, the summer mortality rate in the US, which had been higher in regions subject to a heat wave during the summer, also evened out.[7]

The spread of the use of air conditioning acts as a main driver for the growth of global demand of electricity.[96] According to a 2018 report from the International Energy Agency (IEA), it was revealed that the energy consumption for cooling in the United States, involving 328 million Americans, surpasses the combined energy consumption of 4.4 billion people in Africa, Latin America, the Middle East, and Asia (excluding China).[8] A 2020 survey found that an estimated 88% of all US households use AC, increasing to 93% when solely looking at homes built between 2010 and 2020.[97]

Environmental effects

[edit]
Air conditioner farm in the facade of a building in Singapore

Space cooling including air conditioning accounted globally for 2021 terawatt-hours of energy usage in 2016 with around 99% in the form of electricity, according to a 2018 report on air-conditioning efficiency by the International Energy Agency.[8] The report predicts an increase of electricity usage due to space cooling to around 6200 TWh by 2050,[8][98] and that with the progress currently seen, greenhouse gas emissions attributable to space cooling will double: 1,135 million tons (2016) to 2,070 million tons.[8] There is some push to increase the energy efficiency of air conditioners. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the IEA found that if air conditioners could be twice as effective as now, 460 billion tons of GHG could be cut over 40 years.[99] The UNEP and IEA also recommended legislation to decrease the use of hydrofluorocarbons, better building insulation, and more sustainable temperature-controlled food supply chains going forward.[99]

Refrigerants have also caused and continue to cause serious environmental issues, including ozone depletion and climate change, as several countries have not yet ratified the Kigali Amendment to reduce the consumption and production of hydrofluorocarbons.[100] CFCs and HCFCs refrigerants such as R-12 and R-22, respectively, used within air conditioners have caused damage to the ozone layer,[101] and hydrofluorocarbon refrigerants such as R-410A and R-404A, which were designed to replace CFCs and HCFCs, are instead exacerbating climate change.[102] Both issues happen due to the venting of refrigerant to the atmosphere, such as during repairs. HFO refrigerants, used in some if not most new equipment, solve both issues with an ozone damage potential (ODP) of zero and a much lower global warming potential (GWP) in the single or double digits vs. the three or four digits of hydrofluorocarbons.[103]

Hydrofluorocarbons would have raised global temperatures by around 0.3–0.5 °C (0.5–0.9 °F) by 2100 without the Kigali Amendment. With the Kigali Amendment, the increase of global temperatures by 2100 due to hydrofluorocarbons is predicted to be around 0.06 °C (0.1 °F).[104]

Alternatives to continual air conditioning include passive cooling, passive solar cooling, natural ventilation, operating shades to reduce solar gain, using trees, architectural shades, windows (and using window coatings) to reduce solar gain.[citation needed]

Social effects

[edit]

Socioeconomic groups with a household income below around $10,000 tend to have a low air conditioning adoption,[42] which worsens heat-related mortality.[7] The lack of cooling can be hazardous, as areas with lower use of air conditioning correlate with higher rates of heat-related mortality and hospitalizations.[89] Premature mortality in NYC is projected to grow between 47% and 95% in 30 years, with lower-income and vulnerable populations most at risk.[89] Studies on the correlation between heat-related mortality and hospitalizations and living in low socioeconomic locations can be traced in Phoenix, Arizona,[105] Hong Kong,[106] China,[106] Japan,[107] and Italy.[108][109] Additionally, costs concerning health care can act as another barrier, as the lack of private health insurance during a 2009 heat wave in Australia, was associated with heat-related hospitalization.[109]

Disparities in socioeconomic status and access to air conditioning are connected by some to institutionalized racism, which leads to the association of specific marginalized communities with lower economic status, poorer health, residing in hotter neighborhoods, engaging in physically demanding labor, and experiencing limited access to cooling technologies such as air conditioning.[109] A study overlooking Chicago, Illinois, Detroit, and Michigan found that black households were half as likely to have central air conditioning units when compared to their white counterparts.[110] Especially in cities, Redlining creates heat islands, increasing temperatures in certain parts of the city.[109] This is due to materials heat-absorbing building materials and pavements and lack of vegetation and shade coverage.[111] There have been initiatives that provide cooling solutions to low-income communities, such as public cooling spaces.[8][111]

Other techniques

[edit]

Buildings designed with passive air conditioning are generally less expensive to construct and maintain than buildings with conventional HVAC systems with lower energy demands.[112] While tens of air changes per hour, and cooling of tens of degrees, can be achieved with passive methods, site-specific microclimate must be taken into account, complicating building design.[12]

Many techniques can be used to increase comfort and reduce the temperature in buildings. These include evaporative cooling, selective shading, wind, thermal convection, and heat storage.[113]

Passive ventilation

[edit]
The ventilation system of a regular earthship
Dogtrot houses are designed to maximise natural ventilation.
A roof turbine ventilator, colloquially known as a 'Whirly Bird' is an application of wind driven ventilation.

Passive ventilation is the process of supplying air to and removing air from an indoor space without using mechanical systems. It refers to the flow of external air to an indoor space as a result of pressure differences arising from natural forces.

There are two types of natural ventilation occurring in buildings: wind driven ventilation and buoyancy-driven ventilation. Wind driven ventilation arises from the different pressures created by wind around a building or structure, and openings being formed on the perimeter which then permit flow through the building. Buoyancy-driven ventilation occurs as a result of the directional buoyancy force that results from temperature differences between the interior and exterior.[114]

Since the internal heat gains which create temperature differences between the interior and exterior are created by natural processes, including the heat from people, and wind effects are variable, naturally ventilated buildings are sometimes called "breathing buildings".

Passive cooling

[edit]
 
A traditional Iranian solar cooling design using a wind tower

Passive cooling is a building design approach that focuses on heat gain control and heat dissipation in a building in order to improve the indoor thermal comfort with low or no energy consumption.[115][116] This approach works either by preventing heat from entering the interior (heat gain prevention) or by removing heat from the building (natural cooling).[117]

Natural cooling utilizes on-site energy, available from the natural environment, combined with the architectural design of building components (e.g. building envelope), rather than mechanical systems to dissipate heat.[118] Therefore, natural cooling depends not only on the architectural design of the building but on how the site's natural resources are used as heat sinks (i.e. everything that absorbs or dissipates heat). Examples of on-site heat sinks are the upper atmosphere (night sky), the outdoor air (wind), and the earth/soil.

Passive cooling is an important tool for design of buildings for climate change adaptation – reducing dependency on energy-intensive air conditioning in warming environments.[119][120]
A pair of short windcatchers (malqaf) used in traditional architecture; wind is forced down on the windward side and leaves on the leeward side (cross-ventilation). In the absence of wind, the circulation can be driven with evaporative cooling in the inlet (which is also designed to catch dust). In the center, a shuksheika (roof lantern vent), used to shade the qa'a below while allowing hot air rise out of it (stack effect).[11]

Daytime radiative cooling

[edit]
Passive daytime radiative cooling (PDRC) surfaces are high in solar reflectance and heat emittance, cooling with zero energy use or pollution.[121]

Passive daytime radiative cooling (PDRC) surfaces reflect incoming solar radiation and heat back into outer space through the infrared window for cooling during the daytime. Daytime radiative cooling became possible with the ability to suppress solar heating using photonic structures, which emerged through a study by Raman et al. (2014).[122] PDRCs can come in a variety of forms, including paint coatings and films, that are designed to be high in solar reflectance and thermal emittance.[121][123]

PDRC applications on building roofs and envelopes have demonstrated significant decreases in energy consumption and costs.[123] In suburban single-family residential areas, PDRC application on roofs can potentially lower energy costs by 26% to 46%.[124] PDRCs are predicted to show a market size of ~$27 billion for indoor space cooling by 2025 and have undergone a surge in research and development since the 2010s.[125][126]

Fans

[edit]

Hand fans have existed since prehistory. Large human-powered fans built into buildings include the punkah.

The 2nd-century Chinese inventor Ding Huan of the Han dynasty invented a rotary fan for air conditioning, with seven wheels 3 m (10 ft) in diameter and manually powered by prisoners.[127]: 99, 151, 233  In 747, Emperor Xuanzong (r. 712–762) of the Tang dynasty (618–907) had the Cool Hall (Liang Dian 涼殿) built in the imperial palace, which the Tang Yulin describes as having water-powered fan wheels for air conditioning as well as rising jet streams of water from fountains. During the subsequent Song dynasty (960–1279), written sources mentioned the air conditioning rotary fan as even more widely used.[127]: 134, 151 

Thermal buffering

[edit]

In areas that are cold at night or in winter, heat storage is used. Heat may be stored in earth or masonry; air is drawn past the masonry to heat or cool it.[13]

In areas that are below freezing at night in winter, snow and ice can be collected and stored in ice houses for later use in cooling.[13] This technique is over 3,700 years old in the Middle East.[128] Harvesting outdoor ice during winter and transporting and storing for use in summer was practiced by wealthy Europeans in the early 1600s,[15] and became popular in Europe and the Americas towards the end of the 1600s.[129] This practice was replaced by mechanical compression-cycle icemakers.

Evaporative cooling

[edit]
An evaporative cooler

In dry, hot climates, the evaporative cooling effect may be used by placing water at the air intake, such that the draft draws air over water and then into the house. For this reason, it is sometimes said that the fountain, in the architecture of hot, arid climates, is like the fireplace in the architecture of cold climates.[11] Evaporative cooling also makes the air more humid, which can be beneficial in a dry desert climate.[130]

Evaporative coolers tend to feel as if they are not working during times of high humidity, when there is not much dry air with which the coolers can work to make the air as cool as possible for dwelling occupants. Unlike other types of air conditioners, evaporative coolers rely on the outside air to be channeled through cooler pads that cool the air before it reaches the inside of a house through its air duct system; this cooled outside air must be allowed to push the warmer air within the house out through an exhaust opening such as an open door or window.[131]

See also

[edit]
  • Air filter
  • Air purifier
  • Cleanroom
  • Crankcase heater
  • Energy recovery ventilation
  • Indoor air quality
  • Particulates

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "Air Con". Cambridge Dictionary. Archived from the original on May 3, 2022. Retrieved January 6, 2023.
  2. ^ Dissertation Abstracts International: The humanities and social sciences. A. University Microfilms. 2005. p. 3600.
  3. ^ 1993 ASHRAE Handbook: Fundamentals. ASHRAE. 1993. ISBN 978-0-910110-97-6.
  4. ^ Enteria, Napoleon; Sawachi, Takao; Saito, Kiyoshi (January 31, 2023). Variable Refrigerant Flow Systems: Advances and Applications of VRF. Springer Nature. p. 46. ISBN 978-981-19-6833-4.
  5. ^ Agencies, United States Congress House Committee on Appropriations Subcommittee on Dept of the Interior and Related (1988). Department of the Interior and Related Agencies Appropriations for 1989: Testimony of public witnesses, energy programs, Institute of Museum Services, National Endowment for the Arts, National Endowment for the Humanities. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 629.
  6. ^ "Earth Tubes: Providing the freshest possible air to your building". Earth Rangers Centre for Sustainable Technology Showcase. Archived from the original on January 28, 2021. Retrieved May 12, 2021.
  7. ^ a b c Barreca, Alan; Clay, Karen; Deschenes, Olivier; Greenstone, Michael; Shapiro, Joseph S. (February 2016). "Adapting to Climate Change: The Remarkable Decline in the US Temperature-Mortality Relationship over the Twentieth Century". Journal of Political Economy. 124 (1): 105–159. doi:10.1086/684582.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g h i j International Energy Agency (May 15, 2018). The Future of Cooling - Opportunities for energy-efficient air conditioning (PDF) (Report). Archived (PDF) from the original on June 26, 2024. Retrieved July 1, 2024.
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[edit]
  • U.S. patent 808,897 Carrier's original patent
  • U.S. patent 1,172,429
  • U.S. patent 2,363,294
  • Scientific American, "Artificial Cold", 28 August 1880, p. 138
  • Scientific American, "The Presidential Cold Air Machine", 6 August 1881, p. 84

 

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Driving Directions in Jefferson County


Driving Directions From Gravois Bluffs Plaza to Royal Supply Inc
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Reviews for Royal Supply Inc


Royal Supply Inc

Ae Webb

(5)

Royal installed a new furnace and air conditioner just before we got our used mobile home. Recently, the furnace stopped lighting. Jared (sp?) made THREE trips to get it back to good. He was so gracious and kind. Fortunately for us it was still under warranty. BTW, those three trips were from Fenton, Missouri to Belleville, Illinois! Thanks again, Jared!

Royal Supply Inc

bill slayton

(1)

Went to get a deadbolt what they had was one I was told I'd have take it apart to lengthen and I said I wasn't buying something new and have to work on it. Thing of it is I didn't know if it was so that it could be lengthened said I didn't wanna buy something new I had to work on just to fit my door. He got all mad and slung the whole box with part across the room. A real business man. I guess the owner approves of his employees doing as such.

Royal Supply Inc

Gidget McCarthy

(5)

Very knowledgeable, friendly, helpful and don't make you feel like you're inconveniencing them. They seem willing to take all the time you need. As if you're the only thing they have to do that day. The store is clean, organized and not cluttered, symmetrical at that. Cuz I'm even and symmetricals biggest fan. It was a pleasure doing business with them and their prices are definitely reasonable. So, I'll be doing business with them in the future no doubt.

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Frequently Asked Questions

The key components include the outdoor condenser unit, ductwork, and thermostat. These components are crucial for the efficient operation of the HVAC system and should be protected from impacts, weather elements, and pests.
To protect the condenser unit, ensure it is elevated on a stable platform to prevent water damage. Install a protective cage or cover to shield it from debris and accidental impacts while maintaining adequate airflow. Regularly clear any vegetation or obstructions around the unit.
Secure ductwork by ensuring proper installation with brackets or hangers to prevent sagging or disconnection. Regularly inspect for leaks or punctures and promptly repair any damage using appropriate sealing methods like mastic sealant or metal tape. Consider insulating exposed ducts for additional protection against environmental factors.